１．Reflections on Emiko Takenaka’s Theory :  Women’s labor movements and family

After the publication of the Collected Writings of Emiko TAKENAKA in 2011-2012, in the 126th general assembly of 2013, a workshop on TAKENAKA’s theoretical work over production, social reproduction and commodification of labor force was organized.

This workshop aims at facilitating discussion on the following more concrete issues. The first report will focus on the influences of TAKENAKA’s work on women’s labor movements.

The second report will discuss the women’s labor and changing family form in the age of neoliberalism from the perspective of TAKENAKA’s theory on labor market and sexual division of work. One of the reporters is a former organizer of the Osaka Regional Council of Trade Union of Japan (Osaka-Sohyo), and the other  has an experience of working in a youth union.

Emeritus Professor, Emiko TAKENAKA, if possible, will join the workshop to make comments on discussion.

Chair：Nobuko Hara（Hosei University）

Coordinator：Akemi Kita（Fukui Prefectural University）

１．Women’s labor movements in Kansai region and TAKENAKA’s theoretical work.

Tomoko GOKA（A former representative of Kansai Research Institute for Women’s Issues）

This report aims at clarifying the influences of TAKENAKA’s theory on women’s labor movements on the following points mainly based on the experiences of the reporter and other primary sources.

1. In 1960, women’s demands for equal pay were rejected by labor unions. In 1965-73, TAKENAKA’s articles on pay equity, which were carried in the special issue of Sohyo, influenced women’s labor movements in Kansai region theoretically.

2. Emeritus Professor, TAKENAKA proposed a theory bridging the gap between protection and equality. She made a contribution to shift movements only opposed to deprivation of women’s rights to movements for decent work and lifestyle both for women and men.

3. Emeritus Professor, TAKENAKA warns that equality of opportunity will strengthen sexual division of work, and proposes that labor unions should work for equality of result.

２．Labor and family in the era of neoliberalism and TAKENAKA’s theoretical works.

Akiko MINOWA（The Jikei University）

Today, neoliberalism is strengthening again the principles of capitalism in our society, and the gender structure also has been changed. The relations between the capitalism and changing structure of labor and family should be discussed in a new perspective of contemporary changing society.

Emeritus Professor, Emiko TAKENAKA began her study with a minute and critical analysis on the gender structure and capitalism in the period of high economic growth of Japan.

 I reflect on this feature of her study and will discuss how TAKENAKA’s theoretical work can be applied to the analysis of women’s labor and family of the age of neoliberalism in order to suggest what are necessary to resolve problems on labor and family toda

２．Foreign Workers, Immigrants and Multiculturalism in East Asia

Aging and low fertility are significant challenges not only in Japan but also in most advanced societies in East Asia. Since the beginning of this century, the shortage of labor force, especially that of unskilled workers in industries such as agriculture, construction, care and housework, has begun tangible, and some countries opened the domestic labor markets to foreigners. At the same time, the marriage immigrants have rapidly increased as well, which brought about more delicate problems such as education and social integration. Even in Japan, which took the most reluctant altitude to foreigners, the voice of requiring deregulation is increasing in various industries recently.

In this session, we attempt to approach to the international migration and multiculturalism in East Asia through the following aspects. The first presentation will examine the immigration policy in the context of regional economic integration in East Asia, based on theoretical and empirical evidences. The second presentation gives light to the brokers of care/domestic worker in Southeastern Asia, the major labor supply region, to examine their influences to the international labor market. The last presentation, based on the in-depth fieldwork to the support organizations and schools in Taiwan, discusses the change of ethnicity and multiculturalism in Taiwan after the rapid increase of marriage immigrants and multicultural families.

Coordinator：LI Lianhua（Shizuoka University）

Debater：Shogo TAKEGAWA（Tokyo University）

１．Migration Policy in the Context of Regional Economic Integration in East Asia

IGUCHI Yasushi（Kwansei Gakuin University）

In East Asia, tensions are rising as a result of territory disputes and security concerns. Fortunately, there remains strong momentum for promoting　trade negotiations to establish institutional regional economic integration. In the meantime, international migration in this region tends to increase, which is of great significance not only to develop economic integration but also to maintain peace and to enhance innovative competence of this region.

From such standpoints, this presentation aims to makes future prospects of international migration in this region based on theoretical and empirical evidences. Firstly, the roles of international migration in the context of regional economic integration will be discussed. Secondly, the mechanism of fertility decline and changes in the labor markets will be explored, which is affecting international migration. Thirdly, not only factors affecting inflow of migrants into Japan, but also growing risks of their outflows and related policies should be discussed. Finally, approaches to develop human resources from East Asian perspectives will be discussed, while promoting social integration of their families especially through guaranteeing educational opportunities for their second and third generations.

２．The State of Labor Market Affairs on Caregivers also Domestic Helpers in the region of Southeastern Asia－Reaching effects into Japan

YAMADA Kenji（Kyoto Women’s University）

The international labor markets are growing so rapidly at the state of many sorts of industries. The agencies which make the management between oversea workers to employee control these markets potently. The activities are extending for sending and accepting countries both side. They could reach the power even for the government to maintain and broaden their business into the world. The key words for comprehending their activities, employment management, banking, human trafficking, exploitation from workers, bribery for the public sectors and so on.

The Japanese labor market is far from the international situation mentioned above. What could be happened in the near future as Japanese government start to accept the migrant workers? This is a report particularized for the field of domestic helper and caregiver.

３．“New Immigrants” and the Multiculturalism in Taiwan: Case Study of Fieldwork in Marriage Immigrants Support Organizations and Elementary Schools

KANETO Sachiko（Fuji Women’s University）

In Taiwan, “new immigrants” (which means marriage immigrants and foreign workers, especially refers to marriage immigrants) have increased since around the 2000s. In the early stage of 2000s, it has been considered that “new immigrants” might have negative impact on Taiwanese society. However, passed about ten years, “new immigrants” are diversifying; their children reach elementary school-age, the situation surrounding “new immigrants” and their social status are gradually changing.

In this presentation, based on the concept of “mode of incorporation” of immigrants, I will focus on how the consciousness of immigrants, the staff or teachers have changed from the case study of marriage immigrants support organizations and elementary schools, and how immigrants have been accepted in Taiwanese society. Furthermore, I will attempt to explore the transformation of ethnicity and the multiculturalism in Taiwan.

３．Income and Occupational Support for Employable needy Persons: from the viewpoint of comparison study between Japan and Germany

Order to respond to the increase of the employable needy, institutional reform is being carried out. In Germany, for employable needy persons, Basic income support for job-seekers has been introduced since 2005. In Japan, for needy persons who are likely to become unable to maintain a minimum standard of living, the Act on Support for Self-Reliance of Needy Persons will be implemented from next year.

In this workshop, from the point of view of Japan and Germany comparison, speakers consider the reform in Japan and focus on two issues. The first is a matter of coordination and priorities between employment support and assisted living. The second issue is the judicial control against the sanctions and obligation.

Coordinator：Hisashi FUKAWA（Hosei University）

１．The Roll of Public Assistance Act in the System of Social Security for the Unemployed

Hideo KINOSHITA（Osaka City University）

It is the most important theme of social policy, what shall the Public Assistance Act do in the system of the social security for the unemployed, when the number of the unemployed and underemployed increase drastic. Someone says that the increase of the recipients of public assistance means an abuse. But when the employment insurance does not function enough, the increase of the recipient of public assistance cannot be avoided.

In this presentation, the speaker analyzes the performance of the employment insurance and investigate the roll of public assistance Act in the actual situation.

２．The Occupational Assistance aimed at Reducing Poverty in the Act on Support for Self-Reliance of Needy Persons

Hisashi FUKAWA（HOSEI University）

In programs for the promotion of persons’ self-reliance in the Public Assistance, various supports for the employable needy have been developed. Together with benefits that ensure a basic standard of living, these programs scheme also provide supports intended to help retain, restore or improve the

employability. The concrete results of these programs on employability, work orientation and social integration are significant.

On the other hand, the Act on Support for Self-Reliance of Needy Persons, without benefits that ensure a basic standard of living, provides supports aimed at reducing or ending poverty through the taking up of employment. Benefit sanctions in the Public Assistance are tightened with the introduction of the new administrative notification. We study whether new act and administrative notification effectively contribute to integrate employable needy into the labor market or to promote social integration.

４．New Frontier of Labor- and Vocational Education

This session focuses on present situation of labor- and vocational education in Japan. Each of our three chosen young specialists engaging in this problem area will give a presentation concerning this matter. In the following discussion we will aim to consider how we should reconstruct our contemporary unsatisfyingly organized labor- and vocational education system which has prevented a lot of young people from getting a good insight into a future working life. As the first reporter, Mr. Isa, a specialist on labor economics, will report on the status quo and problems of university education of labor economy in Japan. Next Mr. Mizuno, a practicing labor and social security attorney, will argue the problematic concerning the instruction in vocational and labor matters for young people given by his professional association in Aichi area. Last, Mr. Isohata, a researcher engaging in HR practices in France, tries to evaluate the situation in Japan based on the recent findings of his field research in French vocational education.

Coordinator：Fumiki ISHIZUKA（Seinan-Gakuin University）

                                   　　　　Debater： Tachihiko MASUDA（Senshu University）

１．Past and present of education of labor economy in Japan: An approach by textbook survey

Katsuhide ISA（Seinan-Gakuin University）

Recently many issues have gained public attention pertaining to education of economics and of labor. They pertain to institutionalization of academic disciplines at the universities, and textbooks are one of the main tools to promote it. But in Japan, surprisingly, there have been few studies about textbooks for undergraduates so far in the area of labor economics. The main purpose of this paper therefore is an exploration into the past and present of education of labor economy in Japan through textbook survey and to provide some implications for its future. Specifically, we firstly confirm the development of the textbooks of labor economy and background factors behind it. Secondly, we survey the textbooks of labor economy published in postwar Japan quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitatively, we confirm the numerical attributes of the textbooks, such as their number of pages/chapters/revisions, publishers, publication years, attributes of authors. Furthermore, we identify the types of textbooks (neoclassical, institutional and eclectic) to see their share over time. Qualitatively, focusing on major textbooks, we compare them by title-topic cross tabulation and point out several observable tendencies and problems, such as decrease in industrial relations topics, legal/policy issue topics and definition of basic categories, less emphasis on macroeconomic issues and disproportionately heavier emphasis on microeconomic issues.

２．Current Status and Issues of labor education carried out by practitioners

Katsuyasu MIZUNO（Aichi Labor and Social Security Attorney Association）

In front of the mal-treatment in so-called “black companies” or a possible cut in public pension plan in the near future, anxiety concerning working-life among Japanese young people has grown recently. To cope with this situation the Aichi Labor and Social Security Attorney Association (ALSSAA) has given lectures on labor and social insurance to high school students in Aichi Prefecture with a view to giving them a chance to think about their future working-life. But it has been not easy for practitioners of ALSSAA to explain to schools the significance of labor education and to persuade them into introducing the courses tailor-made for this matter. Indeed only a few schools have introduced such courses in Aichi Prefecture until today while allowing the students only a very little teaching content and very limited school hour for this purpose. But today Japanese young people have a very limited opportunity to learn in their workplace what it is like to work or how they should work. So the importance of labor education in schools in ahead of working-life is growing more and more. To attract a public attention to this matter I will report on the reality and the problems of the labor education carried out by the ALSSAA while searching for an ideal style of contribution of practitioners to the formation of future labor education.

３．Aspects of French vocational education

Kohei ISOHATA（Kagawa University）

Essentially introduced by the Astier Law of 1919, the French vocational education system has been developing in its own unique way in near 100-year history. Above all, the continuing vocational education system was established by an agreement among government, labor and management in the 1970s. Also, two higher education reforms in 1968 and 1974 promoted vocational or technical curricula in the institutions of higher education, main actor of the continuing vocational education. Now, the alternating training is in great vogue, combining the theory in classroom with the practice in companies and improving employability of young people.

In this presentation, I will explain the unique characteristics of French vocational education, based on its history and current state. Also, comparing with the situation of Japanese vocational education, I will seek implications for its future.

５．Consideration of Various Types of Female Labor in Korea: From the Perspective of  “Informality”

Coordinator：Ryoko HATTORI （Osaka City University）　

Debater：Nobuko YOKOTA （Yamaguchi University）

While the globalization has developed rapidly since the 1990s, irregular workers or a-typical workers have conspicuously increased all over the world. On the other hand,　 there are so many different kinds of irregular employment type such as we cannot generalize them simply as the irregular work, because the way of the irregularization of labor varies by region and times. Especially, among the female workers in Japan and Korea, another “informal” workers as well as part-time workers and indirect employment such as dispatched and contracted workers hold the majority. While almost all of them are so much excluded from the protection of labor laws, social welfare and a trade union, these informal female workers support the production activities in society. Moreover, the self-employed other than wage workers, which have had the “informal” characteristics of employment have constituted traditionally a large proportion of the female employment in Korea. Therefore, we asked Prof. Joohee Lee and Prof. Myunghwi Lee to make presentation on the actual condition and the structure of the various types of female labor in Korea from the gender perspective.

１．The Informal Employment and the Structure of Labor Market from the Gender Perspective since the 1990s

Joohee LEE（Ewha Womans University）

The female work participation in Korea has grown up since the 1990s as the globalization is proceeding, but this is also a process of irregularizaion of work forces. Then, the irregular workers have become as serious social issues since the IMF crisis in 1998, when the irregular workers started to replace the male regular workers.

Our research aims to examine the gender differences in the mechanism of labor market integration by analysing macro statistics as well as conducting social survey. Female irregular workers tend to work in small business sectors, comparing to male counterparts, and they are often excluded from the legal protections and trade union support because they are seen as engaging informal employment.  Our survey covers the various types of employment, such as contracted workers, dispatched workers and self-employed, mainly excluded from previous macro data analysis, in order to examine the gender differences in labor market.

２．The Historical Consideration of the Formation of the Female Self-Employed in Korea: Through the Fieldwork in the Pusan Area 

Myunghwi LEE（Ewha Womans University）

The structure of labor market in Korea is characterized by a high ratio of self-employed worker in whole working population traditionally. In the 2000s, the self-employed workers account for 30 per cent of the whole working population in Korea. It is important to note that there is a circular relation between non-regular employment and self-employment for the female workers, which leads to fix their marginal status in the labor market in Korea. In other words, the issues of socially vulnerable people such as so called working poor can be understood in the context of this circular structure among the non-regular workers, the self-employed, and non-labor market participants.

Our research will focus on the historical aspects of female self-employed workers in Korea, based on the theory of urban informal sectors. In particular, our survey will focus on the case of Busan city, which has a large population of female self-employed and many of them are the widows of the Korean war.  Busan city has tried several policy initiatives to support them, including micro-finance to start up business are conducted.

６．Current Status and Issues of the Self-Support programs for Needy People

The law of Self-Support programs for Needy People was enacted in December 2013 as a second safety net. Today, many local governments promote Pilot projects aimed at employment and social participation of the needy people. But, since the pace of local governments is not complete, there are various optional support programs, efforts of local governments also are diverse. On the other hand, the approach of support is different from the support system for job seekers which is positioned at second safety net, also the employment support beneficiaries under the minimum living guarantee system as the last safety net.

In view of such things, there are many issues to be discussed in this system. For example, there are issues surrounding the concept that defines the support method. What kind of support local governments can provide?

In this workshop, we try to understand the current situation and problems of the Self-Support programs for Needy People, first from the point of view of project implementing bodies (local governments, support organizations and social enterprises), secondly from the point of view of the nature of individual support (continual counseling support and employment support).

Chair：Junri SAKURAI （Ritsumeikan University）

Coordinator：Hiroyuki FUKUHARA（Osaka City University）

１．          Institutional framework of the Self-Support programs for Needy People : from the point of view of the activation policy

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Hiroyuki FUKUHARA（Osaka City University）

Since the 1980s, in the Western countries, there were a variety of activation policy as the social inclusion for the poor and needy people. They may be divided into several types. On the other hand, in Japan since the late 1990s, the policy of the government to the poor and needy people contain a different type of activation,   and some employment support measures.

Under these circumstances, Self-Support program for needy people is going to be implemented. I will approach to this system from the point of view of international comparison of activation, and discuss the significance and limitations of this program.

２．Current State and Issues of Local Governments in Conducting Self-Support programs for Needy People : From the perspective of promoting and activating social resources in local community

Norimichi GOISHI（Osaka City University）

Self-help support programs are under the jurisdiction of local governments and classified as self-governing function, while public assistance are classified as statutory entrusted function. In this system, ‘decentralized and creative support’ is emphasized.

The concept of self-help support contains not only conventional welfare, but also employment, housing, family financial management support and educational support. It will be significantly difficult tasks for local governments to implement this program. Furthermore, while providing with cash benefits are main business under the conventional welfare, providing with care services are main business under the new system. In this regard, a new approach, which will be different from that of the existing systems, is required.

To tackle these challenges, how are local governments preparing? Local governments show a variety of directions in implementing this new system. In this report, we will study typical cases and investigate their effectiveness.

３．Current Status and Issues of contract private organizations of the Self-Support programs for Needy People : Social enterprise responsible for the employment preparation program and intermediate labor market program

Atsusi FUJII（Rikkyou University）

The Self-Support programs for Needy People is a system which is intended to lead the needy people to stable employment or social participation. In particular, the employment preparation program and intermediate work program are important. In this program, there are the policy of expansion of short-term work opportunities   in the private sector on the one hand. But, the support policy of long-term the work experience is more desirable in the case of people who suffer from various difficulties on the other hand.

However, on the assumption that the government does not provide financial assistance, the development of opportunities for intermediate work is a major issue.  At the same time, it would be important to provide opportunities for work experience with high-quality and stability.

Focusing on social enterprise as subject to challenge in this challenge, we will analyze the evolution of the social enterprise, in particular the network and coordination from the point of view of the organizational theory.

４．An inquiry into The Self-Support programs for Needy People : the scheme and functions of continually providing personal and comprehensive support services

Yusuke KAKITA（Oita University）

People with difficulty in life are in economic poverty and social isolation. Therefore, for them, it is required not only support for work, but also support for daily life and social relationship.

From this perspective, this paper, by analyzing the support for needy people for real, aims at addressing the scheme and functions of continually providing personal and comprehensive support services. Through this analysis, this paper examines issues about policy and practice for people with difficulty in life.

５．Current Status and Issues of The Self-Support programs for Needy People by social enterprise :Verification of the role of the work support with an emphasis on the party concerned

Kendo OTAKA（Seigakuin University）

“Employment” support is well recognized in the Self-Support programs. But, “work” support (assistance in the field of work) is critical important. But, employment support tend devoted focus not only on the improvement of willingness and employability of the parties, but also look to the aspect of “place of work”.

In the circumstance which a variety of people work in cooperation, as well as aware of the role of their own, how to build a work environment that allows to support companion and take care of teamwork? I try to discuss the construction of independence against the work which may be raised naturally in that environment.

７．Limit of Full Employment and Recent Changes in Social Policies in Japan and Europe

Unemployment rate in the advanced economies has kept high due to low economic growth and increased female work force. Japan also faces unfavorable labor market while unemployment rate is relatively low. In Europe we see increased flexibility in labor market on the one hand and also broadened field of social security on the other. Some countries have new public assistance with no or easier means test. Japan has followed same path. The session will discuss recent changes in Dutch and Japanese social policy as continued session from the 127th meeting as well as theory of poverty in Europe. Main focus rests on that 1) the Dutch “flexicurity” is limited to flexibility in labor market, not included social security, in particular social welfare; 2) Japanese “second safety net” is similar to European programs, but has not principles of self determination and merit-free egalitarianism; 3) Also in the theory of poverty Sen’s notion of capability has possibility of new theory based on self determination and merit-free egalitarianism. It presents the same direction as the social policies discussed or to be discussed here.

Chair：Kimihiko ISHIKAWA （Meiji University）

Coordinator：Kazuo TAKADA（Hitotsubashi University）

１．Flexicurity policy and the long-term unemployed in the Netherlands

Takamitsu KUBO（Meiji University）

Flexicurity programs for the long-term unemployed in the Netherlands will be discussed based on my survey in March 2014. The Dutch government shortened the duration of unemployment benefit from 60 months to 38 months in 2006. It is still long and generous for the unemployed. After expiry of the benefit, people still in unemployment can be transferred to the public assistance. But they cannot receive the money before they pass means test. They have to sell their houses and cars to pass the test. Great is the gap between statuses of the unemployed with generous benefits and the recipient of public assistance. This is the traditional policy which was standard in the 20th century. But now, it is quite different from RSA in France and Hartz IV in Germany which situate between social insurance and traditional public assistance. The Dutch “flexicurity” is limited to labor market, in that it is equal status between regular workers and atypical employees. It is not security for the long-term unemployed. The Dutch policy for the unemployed is based on self-help principle. It is a conservative policy, different from French and German policies toward unemployed people which is based on self-determination and merit-free egalitarianism.

２．Revisit in the theory of poverty –From relative poverty to social exclusion

Nobuo SHIGA（Graduate Student ,Hitotsubashi University）

Peter Townsend’s theory of relative deprivation is the most important theory of poverty in the present Britain. It focuses on insufficiency in consumption. When he established the theory, full employment was a practical target of economic policy, and unemployment was seen a transient phenomenon. Then, he thought that temporal benefits were sufficient to enter again to the working lives and social integration. Full employment was, however, difficult to attain since 1980s, and “new poverty” emerged. The new social problem means that social integration will be impossible with just the dole to support consumption. Amartya Sen proposed the notion of capability which is to substitute for insufficiency of consumption. The report maintains that Sen’s notion reveals dead-end faced by the British theory of poverty, and that by using the notion of capability we can understand “new poverty” clearly, and develop a new theory in social inclusion.

３．Current status and issues of “Second Safety net” in Japan

Takao SASAKI（Tokyo University of Social Welfare）

In response to the increased unemployment rate after the Lehman Shock, the Japanese government launched a new program, called Second Safety Net. The main program includes the support system for job seekers that has been in place since 2011 as well as the support system for needy persons which was implemented in 2015. These systems are expected to function in between for the social insurance and public assistance.

While there have been various discussions about individual systems that are included in the Second Safety Net, there have not been adequate discussions about why Second Safety Net is required in addition to the existing systems and ongoing problems that the social security system has faced as well as how Second Safety Net is trying to solve the problems.

In this report, we aimed to analyze Second Safety Net in such aspects and consider about our future challenges.

Social policy and Labour Market De-regulation: 

Comparing the debate in Japan and the European Union

The Japanese Government intends to deregulate the rules pertaining to the labour market. The country therefore finds itself at a turning point: whether to initiate more deregulation or not. Across the Member States of the European Union, for example, labour market deregulation continues to be advanced under the rubric of ‘Labour market flexibility’. This appears to be different than the situation in Japan.

The debate in the EU has not only been driven by governments it has also included social partners and trade unions that have proposed strategies in opposition to neo-liberalism such as the Supiot report. Such debate has gone on to influence the European Commission’s Employment Strategy as well as the employment Policy and Labour Law of various European countries.

Based on the above, the aim of this session will be to draw comparisons, about labour market rules, between the European case and the latest proposals emanating from the Japanese government.

Chair：Tateshi MORI（Teikyo University）

１．Current situation on EU labour law policy

Keiichiro HAMAGUCHI（The Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training）

In the EU labour legislation system, corporatism in the form of involvement and initiative of social partners is stipulated at the level of constitutional norm, the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, and is regarded as an expression of democracy at the legislation. From the enforcement of the Maastricht Treaty, not so small number of agreements were concluded between intersectoral andsectoral social partners and were enforced in the form of Council Directives. Recently, however, autonomous agreements which are not transformed into directives are preferred bacause of the opinion of  business side and some legal problems are pointed out.

From mid-2000’s, on the other hand, European Commission has clearlyrecommended the Danish flexicurity, which is in retreat bacause of the recent crisis. Moreover, paradoxically, successive judgements of EU Court of Justice in late 2000’s have driven the Nordic industrial relations system, which is the social foundation of the flexicurity,

into the corner with the principle of Internal Market. Monti proposal which would make regulations on the right of strike in the EU level was withdrawn because of criticism from both business and labour.

Meanwhile, transnational company agreements at the EU level have been concluded steadily in the framework of European works councils, and the number of agreement is already over 250. European Commission aims to legislate the transnational company agreement at the EU level and has conducted the setup of experts group and consultation of social partners. However, there are many legal problems which conflict with national industrial relations systems such as division of role between trade unions and employee representatives.

２．Social Regulations on Labor in Germany

Yoko Tanaka（University of Tsukuba）

In Germany, deregulation process on labor relations proceeded from the end of 1990s to 2000s.

Similar to Japan, the number of regular full-time employment decreased.  On the contrary, the so-called irregular employment(atypische Beschäftigung), like fixed-term employees(Befristete Arbeit) and dispatched workers(Leiharbeit) increased rapidly.

Along with the high unemployment rate, low-wage work have been approved and promoted. The new unemployment payment system was established on condition of efforts of getting jobs.

In the same period, the organization rate of labor unions has continuously decreased to 20 % and less. Including the increase of non-works council workplaces and the expanding trend of working hours, the social regulation on labor seems to be gradually retreated.

However, this situation began to change itself, particularly after the Lehmann shock in 2008-2009,.

Germany got out from the very serious economic recession smoothly and rapidly in the EU countries. Its economy is in a favorable condition. In this period, the following new trends are emerging:

First, the number of the irregular employment bottomed out and turned into decrease. So do the unemployment rate payment and its budget amount. Not only that, the decline of the organization rate of the labor unions also bottomed out, and many are now discussing the revitalization of labor unions. The biggest union IG Metall has newly succeeded to organize young blue-collar workers and dispatched workers. On the basis of plenty of the stored money for the strikes, they have struggled not only to get better wages but also to negotiate about the regulation of the arrangements of dispatched workers and the education of young workers. Now the chairman of IG Metall  is referred to as the most influential person to the German economy. Very recently in July 2014, the unified minimal wage system was introduced, which has been discussed for years but not realized.

Here we will examine what is now happening in Germany, and why these changes happened there in detail, and discuss the suggestions for Japan.

３．Employment strategy in Denmark in the globalization

Takashi Suganuma（Rikkyo University）

This study explores recent Danish employment strategies employed by social partners—employers’ associations and labour unions—and the state as a promising case study of a sustainable welfare state in the era of globalization. Even in Denmark, employment patterns are becoming diversified and atypical, and bargaining between social partners is becoming decentralized. Centralized collective bargaining practices, though common custom previously, diminished during the 1990s, and decentralized bargaining has become more prevalent recently. Although the directives of the European Union and high immigration have restricted the traditional independence of social partners from the state in Denmark, the autonomy of social partners is still strong, and around 70% of Danes belong to unions. While evolving throughout the 20th century, the Danish policy of “flexicurity” became popular in the 2000s. Even as the global economic environment changes drastically with globalization, Danes seem to hold fast to this tradition, while offering some innovation; social partners are likely interested in respecting and keeping it.

In this presentation, based on recent research in Denmark, we explore how social partners and the state have dealt with globalization in the field of industrial relations. By our analysis, we set Denmark as a best practice example of the welfare state’s response to globalization, in terms of both national strategy for economic growth and employment reform. However, a distinct theoretical effort to transfer, import, or transplant this model, different from the Danish tradition, must occur in Japan. Though this effort should be unique and localized, we show through the Danish example, sustainable conditions for Japan as a welfare state that also faces globalization.

１．  Labor 1

Coordinator: Toru KUMAZAWA（Fukushima University）

・Makoto KUMAZAWA, Reasons for Trade Unionism Now ：In the Quest for  Solidarity at Work

（＝熊沢誠『労働組合運動とはなにか－絆のある働き方をもとめて－』岩波書店、2013年）

Reviewer:Masashi UEDA（Doshisha University）

・Taichi ITO ,Labour Movement and Atypical Employment　in Japan: Resistance and

Independence of youth workers

（＝伊藤大一『非正規雇用と労働運動－若年労働者の主体と抵抗－』法律文化社、2013年）

Reviewer: Shoji HASHIGUCHI（Ritsumeikan University）

・Ryoji KANEKO, An Inquiry into the Wage and the Salary in Modern Japanese History

（＝金子良事『日本の賃金を歴史から考える』旬報社、2013年）

Reviewer: Michio NITTA（Kokushikan University）

２．　Labor 2

Coordinator: Koh IGAMI（Kobe International University）

・Sachi KOTANI, Sociology of Individually-affiliated Unions: Tokyo Managers’ Union and Women’s Union Tokyo, 1993-2002

（＝小谷幸『個人加盟ユニオンの社会学－「東京管理職ユニオン」と「女性ユニオン東京」(1993年-2002年)－』お茶の水書房、2013年）

                     Reviewer: OH Hak-soo（The Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training）

・Nobuyuki YAMADA, Social Movement Unionism: Globalization and the Revitalization of the Labor Movement

（＝山田信行『社会運動ユニオニズム－グローバル化と労働運動の再生－』ミネルヴァ書房、2104年）

Reviewer: Charles WEATHERS（Osaka City University）

・Takashi HISAMOTO, Job Assistance and Poverty in the United States

（＝久本貴志『アメリカの就労支援と貧困』日本経済評論社、2013年）

Reviewer: Hayato KOBAYASHI（Nihon Fukushi University）

３．  Social Security

Coordinator: Kiriyo NAKAZONO（Hokkai-Gakuen UNIVERSITY）

・Satoru HASHIMOTO, Fundamental Perspectives on Nonprofit Studies

（＝橋本理『非営利組織研究の基本視角』法律文化社、2013年）

Reviewer: Norimichi GOISHI（Osaka City University）

・Naho SUGITA,Historical Studies on the Population Problem and Social Policy in Japan:Eugenics and Euthenics

（＝杉田菜穂『〈優生〉・〈優境〉と社会政策－人口問題の日本的展開－』法律文化社、2013年）

Reviewer: Naoko TOMIE（Ibaraki University）

・Mari OSAWA, Governance of Livelihood Security

（＝大沢真理『生活保障のガバナンス－ジェンダーとお金の流れで読み解く－』有斐閣、2014年）

Reviewer: Kaori KATADA（Hosei University）

JASPS 129th (2014 Autumn) Biannual Conference
Date: 11-12 October, 2014
Venue: Okayama University, Okayama

October 11th   Program of Plenary Sessions

October 12th   Program of Symposium Sessions and General Sessions

Social Reform Thought and the Present Age: Questioning the Intellectual Foundations of Social Policies

Chair：Koichi HIRAOKA（Ochanomizu University）

Kaori KATADA（Hosei University）

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the various streams of social reform thought that have affected the historical development of social policies and contributed to the intellectual foundations of welfare states. This plenary session will focus on several of these streams originating in both the West and Japan, to examine their influence on the formation of modern welfare state systems and to discuss their contemporary significance.

１．Concepts of “the Social” and “the Economic” in the History of Social Policy Ideas in France

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Takuji TANAKA（Hitotsubashi University）

Recent social policies in developed countries are, at first sight, converging towards “workfare” under the pressures of globalization and post-industrial economy. The present study demonstrates a different orientation toward reforms by referring to the history of the French welfare state and recent welfare reforms in France. This orientation shows that the idea of “social solidarity” (solidarité sociale) plays an important role in recent French reforms, which shift toward universalization of an individual’s “free choices” rather than workfare.

 In the first and second sections, this study describes the history of the formation of the French welfare state. It focuses on the philosophical conflicts between the idea of the primacy of industrial development (the economic) and the primacy of mutual aid (the social) in social policy from the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century. Solidarism proposed by Leon Bourgeois at the end of the 19th century reconciled these conflicts. In the 1940s, Pierre Laroque provided a basic institutional framework for the French welfare state under the influence of this ideology of solidarism.

In the third section, the present study examines contemporary welfare reforms in France from a philosophical perspective. In the 1980s, “social exclusion” became a major issue in the discussions of social policy. The French government introduced new family policies and inclusion policies, aiming to assure an individual’s “free choices” in terms of life-style and work-life balance. This study demonstrates that the traditional ideology of “social solidarity” played an important role in introducing these new welfare policies.

２．Karl Polanyi and Ideas on Social Reform Re-examined: Controversial Basis of the Market Society

Midori WAKAMORI (OsakaCityUniversity)

 It has become commonplace that Karl Polanyi is more relevant today than ever. Certainly the obvious consequences of neoliberal policies since　the 1970s -when Ronald Regan in the United States and Margaret Thatcher in the UK launched a systematic attack on the legacy of Keynes=Beverage Welfare State- are increasing market instabilities reminiscent of the 1930s, as well as a growing loss of democratic control.

In The Great Transformation, of which first-edition was published in 1944, Polanyi shows his interpretation of the history of industrial society in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when there occurred great crises and upheaval of the market society; the Great Recession, severe unemployment problems, financial instability, crisis of democracy, economic nationalism, fascism, and great wars. The lasting interest and insights in the book extend beyond an analysis of the nineteenth century market society. Polanyi has important insights to understand the very context of the rise and fall of the Welfare State.

 One of his theses is that during economic crisis, economic liberalism requires “social reform” for the market. Free-market liberalism promotes various projects of “planning for competitive market system” for creating an environment in which private interests can flourish. In case of “emergency”, it can become openly anti-democratic in defense of the market and encourages a strong state authority that has the capacity to resist “spontaneous” social protection movements in the product, labor, and financial markets. According to Polanyi, completely unfettered markets lacking social control were destructive of the livelihood of common people and eventually generated social reactions that sought to intervene in the market system to secure a more secure society.

３． Economic and Social Factors in the History of Ideology and Thought in Social Policy in Japan

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Kingo TAMAI (Aichi Gakuin University）

 One century has passed since the Society on the Study of Social Policy was established in order to conduct social reform in Japan. During this period, a great many ideologies and thoughts appeared in the Society. Currently, we should ask how the pattern of social reform has changed, and also how the core principle has been maintained without drastic changes.

  Social policy plays two roles in relation to the market. First, it establishes regulations and rules such as labor policy so as to promote the market mechanism. We can say that this function of social policy works as an economic factor. Second, it deals with the problems caused by the market mechanism. This means the social dimension of social policy.

  When we reflect on Japanese social policy history on ideology and thought, it is possible to find cases of both harmonization and conflict of economic and social factors in each period. The balance of the two factors in policymaking determines decisions on the content of social policy.

  We would like to propose a new approach to the ideology and thought of social policy in the 21^st century, highlighting the dynamism of economic and social factors in social policy through a historical perspective from the pre-war period to the present.

[Special Lecture] ：Labor and the Double Movement

 Sanford M. Jacoby(University of California, Los Angeles)

  In his brilliant book, The Great Transformation, Karl Polanyi developed the idea of the double movement: the recurring swings between market expansion, spontaneous opposition, and subsequent market regulation. My talk is an historical overview of market regulation—economic and social–during the 20^th century. It emphasizes the contributions of the modern state, policy experts, and labor unions. Then it turns to a development that Polanyi could not foresee: the neoliberal countermovement of the past thirty years. It’s had a devastating effect on American unions. Now they are struggling to reinvent their movement.

Will there be a reaction to the current neoliberal hegemony?  What can the labor movement contribute if this occurs? These are great but unanswered questions. While the talk emphasizes the United States, hopefully it has some relevance to other nations.

１.  Methodology of Study on Industrial Unions in Japan

Chair・Coordinator：Yoshio SASAJIMA（Meiji Gakuin University）

Debater：OH Hak-soo（Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training）

In Japan labor union is a company–based union and it negotiates with its employer. On the other hand, an industrial association of company-based unions (Japanese style industrial union) do not negotiate with the employers’ organization. There is no inter-company wage negotiation in Japan.

But from 1950s’ to 1970s’ inter-company wage negotiations existed in several industries. Social actors called these negotiations ‘united negotiation’, ‘group negotiation’, ‘combined negotiation’ or ‘diagonal negotiation’. The association of company-based unions took part in inter-company negotiations as a major industrial relations’ actor. In 1960’ it also planned a conversion from company-based union to industrial union.

In this session we examine inter-company wage negotiations and plans for industrial unionization in post-war Japan and consider how to research functions of Japanese style industrial unions.

１．Inter-Company Wage Negotiations and Industrial Unionization

Fumito MATSUMURA（Nagoya City University）

In post-war Japan, besides company-based wage negotiations, inter-company wage negotiations existed in several industries. Social actors called these negotiations ‘united negotiation’, ‘group negotiation’, ‘combined negotiation’ or ‘diagonal negotiation’. In these industries the association of company-based unions took part in inter-company negotiation as a major industrial relations’ actor. We call these negotiations ‘industrial-level wage negotiations’.

In this study I survey industrial-level wage negotiations in six industries; private railway, coal, beer, metal working, textile and marine transportation. I give a presentation on formation factors of these negotiation systems, the process of their progress and decline.

The association of company-based union also planned a conversion from company-based union to industry-wide union in private railway and beer sector. I also examine the purpose of industrial unionization and the process of its decline.

I want to compare inter-company negotiations and industrial unionization between European countries, Korea and Japan.

２．Two Case Studies of Inter-Company Wage Negotiations: Metal Working and Marine Transportation

 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Hiroaki FUJII（Nagoya Sangyo University）

This study examines the factors that maintain inter-company wage negotiations, based on two case studies of negotiations of Zenkoku-Kinzoku (national trade union of metal workers) Ishikawa branch and All Japan Seamen’s Union.

Negotiations of Zenkoku-Kinzoku Ishikawa branch were called “Ishikawa method”. The feature of Ishikawa method was cooperative actions between enterprise unions under the control of the local headquarter to standardize working conditions.

The feature of negotiations about seamen was multi-employer negotiations between shipowners’ groups and All Japan Seamen’s Union. But some negotiation groups have been broken down, and multi-employer negotiations have decreased since 1980.

３．Two Case Studies of Inter-Company Wage Negotiations: Coal and Textile

Makio KIMURA（Asahi University）

 This study focuses on two case studies of coal and textile industries, and discusses their institutional function of inter-company wage bargaining and their forming and declining conditions.

As to their institutional function, participations by industrial relations actors, scope and procedure of the bargaining are examined. As to their forming and declining conditions, the evolution of Japanese post-war industrial relations and the features of industrial relations actors, role of the Labor Relations Commission are examined.

Inter-company wage bargaining in the coal industry, called “Taikakusen” (diagonal line) bargaining, was formed after highly integrated bargaining broke down. Those of small firm groups in the textile industry, called regional group bargaining, were formed along with the major firm groups during the period of high growth economy. However declining periods of two cases are different, their common factor was more tightly competitive markets where many firms had to withdraw from their bargaining because management gap among them expanded so much that some of them couldn’t afford paying their same rates and also because the other firms were closing down.

２.  Reasonable Accommodation in the Employment of Persons with Disabilities who Find It Difficult to Acquire Reasonable Accommodation                      

Chair・Coordinator：Kimiko NAGASAWA（University of Kochi）

In anticipation of ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in Japan, the law for Employment Promotion of Persons with Disabilities was revised in 2013 to incorporate a clause “reasonable accommodation”(RA) shall be provided to every handicapped employee beginning of 2016. The definition and details of RA are written in official documents, yet many challenges await to ensuring compliance to the new law, especially for the persons with disabilities who find it difficult to acquire the RA in an employment setting.

This session aims to clarify the problems with obtaining RA and consider ways and means to implement the RA in the handicapped workers’ workplace in Japan by bringing in examples of the cases in other countries. The first presenter outlines discrimination against disability and RA and examines how to reduce the inequalities for persons with severe disabilities. The second presenter examines the concept of RA and suggests solutions to the current problem by using the concept of Interactive Process. Then the third presenter looks at the social employment and issues on assurance of the wages for the handicapped employees in Japan in comparison to other East Asian countries.

１．What Are Discrimination on the Basis of Disability and Reasonable Accommodation, and What Should Be Discussed to Solve Inequalities for Persons with Disabilities ?

Masayo TOHYAMA（University of Kochi）

After the enforcement of the Anti-discrimination Law in the US and the UK in the 1990s, there have been discussions on these laws for ratification of “the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities”, in Japan. As a result, in 2013, the law to eliminate discrimination against disability has enacted in Japan. But at the present, the content of discrimination and reasonable accommodation (RA) in the law is no more than conventional in its definition and measures. Especially, it is important to discuss equal opportunity for persons with severe occupational disabilities. The purpose of this presentation is firstly to highlight the specifics of discrimination against disability and reasonable accommodation at work place, and secondly to examine how to solve the issues related to inequality for persons with severe disabilities. Finally, I would like to sort out the points under discussion and to present further direction of the policy for solutions and countermeasures.

２．The Challenges in Operation and Concept for Practice of Reasonable Accommodation in the Real World

Ritsu YAMAMURA（Nihon University）

 Responding to a passage of new discrimination law, reasonable accommodation (RA) for people with disabilities especially in an employment setting has received more attention than ever. While there are visible signs of efforts for vague, there are some issues which should be tackled for the realization of effect of RA in practice; especially, difficulty with implementation of RA, and that the concept of RA might not be conceivably fully understood in Japan because RA is based on the concept of civil rights with which people in Japan is not necessarily familiar. However, understanding of the concept is critically important for RA to fulfill its primary function. At the same time, getting right understanding of this concept could bring the way to solve the first issue. In this presentation, I will explain those two issues and the relationship between them, and make a proposal of the solution with the use of the concept of Interactive Process.

３．The Problem and the Vision of Social Employment in East Asian Countries: Including the Viewpoint of Income Assurance for Persons with Disabilities

Hiroshi ISONO（Shizuoka welfare and medical specialized collage）

Japanese government has ratified “The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities” published by United Nations on June 20, 2013. But there still remain many problems concerning the policies related to the issues faced by persons with disabilities in Japan. One of the problems is social employment. Social employment is provided as “seamless employment” in “Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities” (Chapter 27). This presentation considers the problem and the vision about social employment in East Asian countries, especially Japan as well as Korea and China where the convention was already ratified.

On the other hand, Japanese “Sub-committee on Welfare Services on the Committee for Disability Policy Reform” proposed the “Framework Recommendation for Comprehensive Welfare Law for Persons with Disabilities” in 2011. The prescript of work and employment is specified in this recommendation (ⅲ, 3), and it emphasizes the necessity for social employment and connection between social employment and income assurance for persons with disabilities especially their pension. This presentation also considers the problem and the vision of the assurance of the income for the persons with disabilities in Japan compared to the situations in Korea and China.

３. Non-regular employment in the field of Education, Childcare, and Public Service and its influence　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　

Chair：Taichi ITO（Osaka University of Economics）

Coordinator：Koichi OGIHARA（Japan Welfare Education College）

The number of non-regular employees has been consistently increasing and was at its highest in 2012. It now accounts for 35.2% of employment in Japan. A main reason for this why they have become non-regular employees, “For lacking jobs of regular employment.” has been chosen by 30% of those men and 15% of those women. In April, 2013, the Labor Contract Act took effect with the aim of shifting non-regular employees to regular employment.

Based on this employment situation, we have chosen three topics to be discussed, which are 1) Education, 2) Childcare, and 3) Public Service. In the field of education, we found trends in organization and opposition. These trends were caused by the change in the employment of part-time professors because of the revisions made in the Worker Dispatching Act. In the next field of Childcare, we are going to focus on the employment issues of non-regular employees at private nursery schools, which have been increasing due to deregulation and labor-intensive. In the last field of Public Duties, we are going to examine the systematization of non-regular employees and the problems it causes, taking a local government as an example.

The purpose of this subcommittee is to analyze how we can respond and create a new social policy for those non-regular employees who are used in order to reduce labor cost against their will.

１．Protesting and Organizing for Survive : The Waseda union’s movement

Taku IMAI（Nihon University）

The revised Labor Contract Act went into effect in April 2013, which stipulated more stable employment and better conditions on a definite contract workers.  University Part-time lecturers, whose contracts repeat over and over again, will be Given the right to request an indefinite contract. But the board of trustees of  Waseda University has established the Work Regulations for Part-time Lecturers to evade Articles 18, 19, and 20 of Revised Labor Contract Act through unilateral unfavorable modifications of the contract. By setting the five year limit on the renewal of contract so that no one can request that their contract be changed to one without a fixed expiry date. And by limiting the number of classes(comma) each lecturer can teach each year to maximum of four to make less conspicuous the un reasonable discriminatory treatment between full-time faculty members and part-time lecturers. About six months later, The union of university part-time Lecturers in Tokyo Area has succeeded in mobilizing 100 Part-time Lecturers starting from the membership from about a dozen at Waseda University, and established the Waseda Union. This report is about protest and organizing, and will investigate how the union movement should fight against firing a definite contract workers.

２．A Case Study of non-regular workers in Private Nursery School―Focusing on Job Specifications and Cooperation among the Workers

  Harumi OBI（Graduate Student, Chuo University）

Child care needs have been increasing year after year. Among these needs, there are insufficient nursery teacher. The most common reason given for　the problem is working conditions of nursery teacher such as low payment , early turnover, the number of non-regular workers has been increasing. The purpose of this study examine the working conditions and Job Specifications of non-regular workers through the analysis of their work and point out the issue based on a private day nursery case.

This paper proposes a resolution for the following points. There is a distinction labor conditions and the job area between regular workers non-regular workers in nursery. However, non-regular workers demanded to develop their skills and Knowledge. Have no opportunity of Development of Teaching Abilities besides.

３．Organizing of Non-Regular Local Public Service Workers in U City

Hiroshi UEKI（Ritsumeikan University）

In recent years, we have recognized the non-regular public service workers are working under inferior conditions, called ‘Kansei-Working-Poor”. The industrial union of local government workers, like Jichiro and Jichiroren, have addressed the organizing of non-regular workers under unavoidable circumstances. And then, we can see some case of it. But, the problem of bad working condition and the situation of unorganized contingent workers have existed since before.

  In this respect, It is a rare case that the U-Shisyokurou ( Union of Municipal Workers in U City) have addressed the organization of contingent workers since 1970’S, and currently organizes some union which is based on workplace (e.g. child care center, sanitation department).

Therefore, it is important to discuss that why the U-Shisyokurou have succeeded the organizing of non-regular workers since 30 years before and what is the achievement and problem of it.

４.  New directions in social welfare policies in Japan　　

Chair：Kimihiko ISHIKAWA（Meiji University）

Coordinator：Kazuo TAKADA（Hitotsubashi University・Emeritus Professor）

The Japanese welfare services are changing now. It was paternalistic and authoritarian, now slowly moving toward self-determination and “merit-free egalitarianism”. This session clarifies such changes by two specific studies. The first presentation analyzes a care management in Kawasaki where a community organization   drastically changed the care management. Genuine care-management has been established by utilizing various resources outside the Long-term Care Insurance. The reasons why the system has succeeded are that the community organization mobilizes government, specialists, and local people. Also effective is organizing principles. The second paper points out that Japanese laws concerning to sexual violence began from the Prostitution Prevention Law of 1956 and Protective Care Services for Women stipulated by the Law are extended to DV-related law (the Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims of 2001). It maintains that sexual violence theory should be based on trilateral relations, instead of the present bilateral one, because prostitution is usually managed by the third party. The two papers will conclusively reveal that the basic characteristics of the recent changes in the welfare policies and practices rest on self-determination and “merit-free egalitarianism”.

１．Social values in community organization in Kawasaki, Japan

Miki SUZUKI（Graduate Student, Hitotsubashi University）

The paper reveals policy ideas embedded in a community organizing in Kawasaki, where a network organization established by the Kawasaki City government provides effective care management, under which outreach services find out hard-to-find cases and successfully give them relieves. For example, a family of old mother and unemployed son who were isolated with no assistance   recovered with its assistance. Analysis of the activities reveals the basic features of the organization, that is. 1) network organization to mobilize various resource, and 2) anti- authoritarian spirit in the actions (concepts of self-determination and “merit-free egalitarianism”). The paper presents evidences to prove that the two concepts enables effective care management.

２．The Contemporary Issues of Protective Care Services for Women

  Chizuko HORI（Josai International University）

Protective Care Services for Women is the social work is stipulated in e the Prostitution Prevention Law (1956). It is replaced by the Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims in 2001. The Act is the basic law regarding the domestic violence, and the victims shall be protected by the Act.  I will analyze the protective services for women since the enactment of the Act and clarify the ideas which underlies in the protective services for women. Also mentioned is the new directions in the social welfare policies. Conclusively, ideas embedded in the services lack self-decision and merit-free egalitarianism. The lack in self-decision means negative attitudes toward   women having counter-power against sexual violence. And, the lack in merit-free egalitarianism is passiveness to provide empowerment measures to the victims. Though the laws and the regulations have been changed, such negative ideas have been prevalent.

５. Studies of Industrial Relations and the Labor Movement of Shin Nihon Chisso(1)

　　　　　　　                   Chair：Atsushi HYODO（Senshu University）

 Coordinator：Akira SUZUKI（Hosei University）

This session is organized to present the results of research activities of Chisso Labor History Research Group (sponsored by the OpenResearchCenter for Minamata Studies, KumamotoGakuenUniversity). The papers to be presented in this session examine industrial relations and the labor movement at Shin Nihon Chisso from the perspectives of the presenters’ own interests.  Previous studies of Chisso tended to focus on issues related to Minamata disease, but few studies took up issues related to industrial relations and the labor movement of the company.  This session aims to fill this gap in the research on Chisso and Minamata disease.

１．On the significance of Chisso’s Anchin dispute(1962-63) in the development of postwar industrial relations

Yoshinori TOMITA（Saga University）

This report takes up problems of Anchin dispute of Chisso company. There are some reasons for studying this labor dispute, (1) its scale (2) its thinly political characteristics. I will explain the indispensable points for studying labor disputes (issues and strategies of labor and management and so on). I will adopt an orthodox method for industrial relations research. I aim at clarifying what industrial relations system was coming into existence in the first half of the1960s, by studying Chisso’s Anchin dispute. Especially, I will explain strategies of management side (National Business Federation, Chemical Industrial Association and Chisso Company), and labor side (National labor center, Industrial union and Chisso Company union). As for shop level industrial relations, I will deal with the composition and strata of manpower, wage management and production management in detail. By taking into what I see, I want to elucidate the constitution of Chisso Company’s management.

２．The Struggle against the Blue-/White-collar Status Distinction and Wage Determination at Shin Nihon Chisso

Masanori HANADA（Kumamoto Gakuen University）

The Shin Nihon Chisso Union had its formative experience in the 53-day strike in 1953 for the abolition of the status distinction between blue- and white-collar workers, because that strike strengthened the union and made it capable of adopting militant policies. The 1953 dispute formed the framework for the union’s subsequent activities such as its confrontation with management over the introduction of stable wage system and its alliance with victims of Minamata disease.  After the 1953 dispute, the status distinction was formally abolished, but its abolition in the real sense had to wait the 1962 Anchin (Stable Wage System) Dispute.  This presentation analyzes the system of blue- and white-collar status distinction and the system of wage determination in detail based on interviews and on archival research.

６.  Two Questions from the Comparative study about the Social Policy Programs of  Colonial Korea    

 Chair：Shen Jie（Japan Women’s University）

Coordinator：Park Kwang Joon（Bukkyo University）

Debater：Masako OTOMO（Chukyo University）

The session raises the two essential questions about the social policy programs implemented by the Japanese Government-General of Korea from the viewpoint of comparative social policy research: (1) Why the social policy for the handicapped in colonial Korea was quite different from that of Taiwan, and (2) Why did the Homeniin System lapse in Korea, while the Japanese system has existed till now. The two paper presentations attempt to clarify the each question.

For the first question, which is relating to the comparative study between different regions, the paper makes explanation why the welfare program for the handicapped of colonial Korea implemented based on the residual welfare model, while that of Taiwan indicated the more institutional education oriented practice. And for the second question, relating the problem why the social policy programs introduce and cease to exist, the paper makes three explanations why the Homeniin System lapsed in Korea.

１．Policy of Special Education in Colonial Korea: Comparison between Korea and Taiwan

Kim Yong Seob（Chosun University）

Social policy programs of the special education for the handicapped in colonial Korea had implemented based on the residual welfare model, and aimed at the residential care instead of the educational development of the handicapped. Saiseiin, the only public institution for the handicapped children had lacked the legal basis, had not developed to the education system for the handicapped untill the Independence of 1945. But in case of Taiwan, the policy had implemented based on the legal principal and supported the more institutional education.

The paper attempts to explain why the Japanese Government-General policy had been indicated the different practice between in Korea and Taiwan.

２．Why did the Homeniin System Lapse in Korea: the Three Explanations

Park Kwang Joon（Bukkyo University）

The Homeniin System combined with the public assistance implemented by the Japanese Government-General of Korea had disappeared just after the nation independence, but the System in Japan has existed till now. The paper attempts to explain about that from the three points of view.

The first explanation concerns that the Honeniin System was originated by the Japanese indigenous culture, the region initiative development and the paternalistic atmosphere of the society, and it was quite different from that of Korea. The second explanation is relating to the personnel of the system, and the Korean members of Homeniin was tended to be defined by the people as the national traitor. And the third one concerns that how the system relevant to the relief of poverty, the original aim of the public assistance. As far as in colonial Korea is concerned, the Homeniin system was irrelevant to the essential function of the poverty relief in colonial Korea.

７. Children’s Resiliency against Poverty : based on the research for the care-leavers and in-care staffs

Chair・Coordinator：Takafumi UZUHASHI（Doshisha University）

Debater１：Masako MUROZUMI（Tezukayama Gakuin University）

Debater２：Michihiko TOKORO（Osaka City University）

Though children’s poverty and the notion of poverty-chain have been well-known recently, discussion about how these should be alleviated or unchained is not enough.

This session examines the following issues based on the questionnaires and interview research.

1)  How the self-esteem of care leavers fluctuate in their life course and which factors causes the fluctuation?

2)  What are factors, both objective and subjective, which promote or hinder the steadiness and self-reliance of the care leavers?

3)   How could disadvantage and difficulties facing care leavers be mitigated?

１．A report on the types of supports given to young care-leavers at residential care homes

Hiromi TANAKA（Graduate Student, Doshisha University）

The purpose of our presentation is to introduce the results of a national survey regarding the various supports given to young care-leavers at residential care homes. It will attempt to help us gain a deeper understanding on the types of supports needed by young people after leaving the care homes. First of all, the outline of the survey will be presented, and then the free-writing answers analyzed by the methods of text mining and KJ method will be shown. The results focus especially on the following three aspects that are closely associated with the lives of young care-leavers who leave residential care: the extent to and the ways in which young care-leavers participate in the planning towards their leaving, the issues surrounding the disclosure of the case to the leaver him/herself, and the types of supports given after leaving.

２．Children with Disadvantage and Difficulties and their ‘ Independence ‘ : based on the interviews for in-care staffs

Nobuko MIYATA （Graduate Student, Doshisha University）・Takafumi UZUHASHI（Doshisha University）

Recently more attention has been paid to the ‘self-reliance’ of care leavers and their ‘After-care‘ by the in-care staffs. The background of it is that they have some disadvantages and difficulties in their life-course, which are commonly observed among children of poorer families.

What disadvantages and difficulties would care leavers face? How inter-generational or longitudinal chain of poverty/disadvantages/difficulties would be unchained?  How could ‘the resiliency against poverty’ be defined? What should be provided as a support system, both curative and preventive, for the care leavers?

We attempt to reply to the above research questions based on the in-depth interviews with in-care staffs of 22 residential care homes.

３．Children’s Care Home Analysis Focusing on the Incidents that Caused Uplifting Self Esteem : From the Interview to Care Leavers of Children’s Care Home

Hanako ODAGAWA（Tokyo Metropolitan University）

The research team implemented interviews to the care leavers of children’s care homes in order to clarify what supported them, what helped uplifting self esteem of them and what caused the loss of self esteem of them. The team interviewed to the 8 former residents of children’s care homes, whose age are between 20 and 36.

This study focuses on the incidents that uplifted their self esteem dramatically, which are found on the work sheets showing ups and downs of self esteem in their life course, and discuss the treatments and the circumstances in the care homes. The discussion will be in terms of each three categories; (1) moving into the care home became the turning point. (2) the turning point was during the stay in the care home, and (3) the cases kept being in the loss of self esteem before and during the stay in care home as well as after leaving.

８.  How to Cope with the Business Problem of  “Disposing” Young Adults — The Potential in Social Networking(1)

Chair・Coordinator：Yoko TANAKA（University of Tsukuba）

Debater：Mitsuko UENISHI（Hosei University）

The problem of “Evil Company” in Japan has come to catch a great deal of attention. Not only was it selected as the buzzword of the year 2013, the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare has decided to carry on a countermeasure to those skeptical companies that may be disposing young adults. The new movement has expanded through the development of “Monthly Labor Focused Supervision,” to carry out intensive supervision and guidance, and to implement telephone consultation nationwide. The existence of problems like long work hours, unpaid overtime, and harassment are often overlooked as a way of Japanese customs, unless the death or the suicide occurs. However, these issues were somewhat accepted throughout the history as a part of Japanese employment system, in return of long stable employment. As a result, the degree of evilness in these companies increased with the instability and changes in current employment system. Here, I would like to suggest the outlook of possible future policies to approach issues to companies that dispose young adults through understanding structural problems by collecting the voices from the actual scenes.

１．POSSE’s approach concerning evil companies

Shohei SAKAKURA（NPO POSSE）

NPO POSSE has been transmitting their analysis and situations in employment policies through the publication of magazine “POSSE,” along with the work consultation service. The magazine featured the issue of evil companies in early 2010 and since then, they have questioned and discussed on policies and interviewed members of political party to raise the concern to public.

The Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare is now implementing measurements to work on evil companies issues since last year. With the common movement to extend the measurement on these conditions, organizations such as POSSE and Union, and professional researchers have started to work together to build the project to control the evil companies. Through the creation of this project, they are providing general support of comprehensive consultations and recommending counter measurement policies. Hereafter, POSSE plans to include educational institutions such as high schools and universities, and in fields like welfare, medical, and government agencies as well to all work together. The goal of this report is to share activities and address the challenges for the future.

２．Lawyer’s approach concerning evil companies

Chikara SHIMASAKI（Kanagawa Sogo Law Office）

Black business damage control defense team was established in July 31, 2013 in order to rescue the victims of the so-called “Evil Company” and to exterminate the damage. Currently, over 200 lawyers in Japan participate as a member, and they hold seminars and writes books, on top of consultation and litigation activities.

On the other hand, victims of evil company often have variety of problems such as anxiety and life mental disorders that they require mental care and support on daily living activities, beyond the infringement of labor law. In addition, cooperation with various fields of exports is necessary to exterminate the damage. Therefore, for the counter-measurement to rescue victims and to eradicate the companies, it is essential to advance the efforts together with experts in various fields, not only by lawyers, but also with unions, researchers, NPOs, and human resources consultants. And as a lawyer, they participate in evil company prevention projects, seminars, and conduct consultation serves o spread the awareness to public.

  Here, I will present the report of lawyers of “evil company” relief efforts.

３．Union’s approach concerning evil companies

Akai JINBU（Metropol Labor Union of Youth）

Out of the top 100 companies in sales of the first section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange listed company, about 70% of workers are made to work overtime in excess hours of 80 hours per month, which is considered over the death line. Japanese companies are hiring young adults with a mind to kill them. Today, the young adults are faced with two ultimate options: to either live with overworking condition or to live with unstable poverty condition. One in three workers, or one in two workers in case of women, are forced to work in unstable conditions. Oddly, there is too much work to kill a worker from overwork, but not enough work available to create suicide.

In case of many young adults, they work under the violation of labor law, and they are not aware of its illegal situations. Even with the mind of legal knowledge, they are still powerless. Only then, the union has the power to take preventative actions among the workplace. The labor laws are effective after the membership in the union. There is only the labor union, which holds enough power to repel and exploit the situation within companies.

A full-time worker at a major convenient store company does not have household goods of all in preparation for the dismissal of the course. The worker prepares to be fired from the job. Young adults today are employed under the abnormal conditions, and their lives are threatened.

９.  Studies of Industrial Relations and the Labor Movement of Shin Nihon Chisso（2）　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　                                    

   Chair：Atsushi HYODO（Senshu University）

Coordinator：Akira SUZUKI（Hosei University）

１．The Transformation of Chemical Industry in postwar Japan and its Impact on Chisso and its labor union

Akinori ISOGAI（Kyushu University）

This presentation examines industrial relations at Chisso Minamata Plant from the macro context of the rapid growth of the Japanese economy from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, and from the mezzo context of the history of chemical industry.  Production technologies of Japan’s chemical industry experienced a drastic shift from those based on electrochemical/coalchemical technologies to those based on a petrochemical technology from the 1950s to the mid-1960s.  The presentation first examines decisions made by Chisso’s top management in the context of the drastic shift and shows that top managers made poor and short-sighted judgments.  Second, it shows that the reasons for the poor/short-sighted judgments lay not only in strategic mistakes of top managers, but also in the entrenched production system of Minamata Plant.  Because of the poor judgments, Chisso made a shift to petrochemical technology much later than its competitors.  And the presentation then argues that the belated shift to the new technology promoted Chisso management to hastily engage in rationalization measures, which in turn constituted one of the causes of the 1962 labor dispute.

２．Analysis of the coalition building between the Shin Nihon Chisso Labor Union and the organizations of Minamata disease victims and their supporters

Akira SUZUKI（Hosei University）

The paper examines how the Shin Nihon Chisso Labor Union formed coalitions with the organizations of Minamata disease victims and their supporters after the union’s “Declaration of Shame” in 1968.  It analyses the nature of the relationship between the SNU and its social movement allies and what kinds of activities the union-social movement coalitions engaged in.  It also locates the SNU’s activities in the contexts of industrial relations at Chisso (e.g., the inter-union rivalry between the SNU and the pro-management “new Chisso union” [formed during the labor dispute in 1962], and personnel policies that discriminated members of the SNU in favor of those of the new union) as well as in the contexts of the development of civil society at large, especially, nation-wide upsurge of anti-pollution movements.

１０.  The Employment policies for the disabled persons in France, Sweden, Denmark and Japan －towards the best mix between integration policies and compensation policies for the disabled persons －

Chair・Coordinator：Katsuhiko IWATA（The Japan Institute for Labor policy and Training）

Debater：Ryosuke MATSUI（Hosei University・Emeritus Professor）

OECD measures disability policy orientation across OECD countries by using two disability policy indicators – the first covers compensation measures or benefit programs, and the second integration or employment measures (“Sickness, Disability and Work – Breaking the Barriers”(2010）).

Let us compare the disability policy in France, Sweden, Denmark and Japan. All four countries are making policy shift from disability assessment to work-capacity assessment. But there is significant variation across countries in policy direction. Denmark and Japan have stronger integration orientations. Sweden has a little stronger compensation orientations. France stands in between. Denmark and Sweden get high scores on both policy dimensions.

Should Japan present the income security of the people with disabilities through employment or through income payment schemes? What is the best policy mix between employment promotion to the open labor market and sheltered employment ?  We will tackle such challenges in Japan at this working session through the comparison with the disability policies in France, Sweden, Denmark whose compensation measures seem more generous than Japan.

１．2013 Disability policy reforms in Denmark in the context of Danish flexicurity

 Katsuhiko IWATA（The Japan Institute for Labor policy and Training）

Danish flexjob scheme has created many jobs (50,000 persons in 2012) with permanent wage subsidy of 50% or 65% on special terms for the people with disability who cannot obtain jobs on normal terms and conditions. Disability pension could be given to people between the age of 18 and 65 whose ability to work is permanently reduced. The reduction must be significant enough to prevent the relevant person from supporting himself by gainful employment including flexjob. The amounts of wage subsidy of flex-job and disability pension were very generous as a part of Danish well-known flexicurity approach.

Since the beginning of 2013 the far-reaching reforms of these scheme has been implemented. (1)The people with disability under 40 of age will not have access to disability pension , but will receive an individual and coherent support including flexjob in a resource clarification program.

 (2) The employers pay wages corresponding to the employees’ actual working hours and the municipalities pay subsidies to the employees (previously the employers) to cover the remaining hours. The two flexjob options (half and two-thirds of work incapacity loss) are replaced by a gradual system allowing any weekly working hours. Actual income will increase with working hours and those with the lowest wage will get the largest subsidy.

On this presentation the reporter will discuss the reform’s implications including the effect on the people with disability in Denmark and Danish flexicurity approach.

２．Revision and new orientation of labor market policies for the people with disabilities

Noriko KURUBE（Nihon Fukushi University）

The Swedish disability policy is characterized by a social policy based on a universal social citizenship and an active labor market policy. Measures to help people with disabilities are therefore an important part of the Government’s strategy for the implementation of the disability policy. Employment with subsidized wage and employment at Samhall AB have been the Swedish main employment measures for people with severe disabilities.

In 2012, the Inquiry for the revision of the labor market policies for the people with disabilities presented its comprehensive proposal on how labor market policy measures should be designed to effectively contribute to improving the prospects for people with disabilities to find and maintain employment. The Inquiry pointed out the importance of a shift from sheltered activities to an inclusive working life in the regular labor market (mainstreaming). In the proposal, so called “supported employment” is focused on as a new method, which has received a great deal of attention in recent years both in Sweden and abroad. The two main objectives of the proposal aims for “development” and “security”: 1) subsidized wages for development for those who need tailored work and different types of developmental initiatives, and 2) subsidized wages for security for those who have reduced work capacity and needs for the long-term support. The new guideline is that an individual’s work capacity and needs determine the amount of support, which should also be applied to employment at Samhall AB. Sweden is trying to streamline the previous labor market policy for the people with disabilities without losing the generous principle.

３．New law on the equality of rights and chances for disabled persons as citizen(2005) and Labor policy

Hiroshi OHSONE（The Open University of Japan）

In France,　the framework of the policy for disabled persons has changed much by ” Loi pour l’égalité des droits et des chances, la participation et la citoyennete des personnes handicapées :Law for the equality of rights and opportunities, participation and the citizenship of the diabled persons” passed in 2005.

By the law, the disability quota system has advanced and the working place for disabled people [the home labor supply center (CDTD) and labor support and service institution (ESAT)  and the protected company (EA)] have changed.

On the social welfare payment side, the compensation system (PCA) was established by the new foundation (CNSA) linking the minimum wages.  And the committees on rights and independence for disabled persons (CDAPH) was carried out, and the prefectural center for disabled persons (MDPH) as the consultation center of one stop window.

Here, standing on the influence of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, I will explain the recent trends in France to correspondence with the idea of International Convention. And I will tell about the relations between the equality and the protective working systems in France. Finally I will say on the implication to Japan.

１１.  How to Cope with the Business Problem of  “Disposing” Young Adults — The Potential in Social Networking(2)

Chair・Coordinator：Yoko TANAKA（University of Tsukuba）

Debater：Mitsuko UENISHI（Hosei University）

Discussion

１　Children and Family

１．An Influence of Self-help Groups of Single-mother Families on the Political Process in Japan –In the case of Welfare Reform in 2000s

  Sae OKURA（Graduate Student, University of Tsukuba）

This paper describes the conditions in which self-help groups of single-mother families are able to influence politics effectively in Japan. Especially, the paper focuses on three main groups (Zenkoku boshi kafu Fukushidantai kyogikai, Single mothers forum, Wink) as cases, and compares the political processes of (a)the case of 2002, in which the groups “failed” to prevent cuts in welfare, and (b)the case of 2008, in which they successfully prevented the reduction of  the child-rearing allowance. The comparison reveals that the stance of the biggest self-help group (zenboshikyo) affected the results. The power is based on the resources, especially networking among parties. Zenboshikyo, when has a have strong network among the ruling parties, has more influence, and others, which have networks mainly among the opposition parties, have only limited influence. Specifically, a main factor that led to the prevention of welfare cuts in 2008 is that Zennboshikyo, who did not request big amendments in 2002, lobbied the ministry and the government through the LDP (Boshi kafu fukushi taisaku giin renmei).

２．Germany’s new family policy and the “Mehrgenerationenhaus” project

Yurina UEDA（Graduate Student, Doshisha University）

In Germany, the significance of the attempt to support the family and individuals by all factions of society including geographical regions, companies, and nonprofit organizations has been recognized. This has been acknowledged in the “sustainable family politics” of “The Seventh Family Report, 2006,” which deals with the diversification of families and changes in roles. The necessity of a “family-friendly society” has also been highlighted, and progress has been made toward the achievement of this.

In this report, in response to these policies, I primarily discuss activities related to “Mehrgenerationenhäuser” that have been supported since 2007 by the Federal Ministry of Family and European Social Fund. These activities aim to promote a multigenerational interchange that is difficult to attain in nuclear families, various comprehensive multigenerational services, and the participation of citizens in activities such as housework, childcare, nursing care, and volunteer work. Based on the 2008 governmental report on activities of “Mehrgenerationenhäuser” and my own fieldwork, I clarify the actual status of activities and analyze the challenge and problems facing society concerning participation and feelings of solidarity.

３．Child well-being in rich countries－UNICEF Innocenti Report Card11: Comparing Japan

Junko TAKEZAWA（National Institute of Population and Social Security Research）

UNICEF Office of Research has published Report Card series since 2000, focusing on the well-being of children in industrialized countries. Each Report Card includes a league table ranking the countries of the OECD.

In the original report(UNICEF Innocenti Report Card 11, April 2013), Japan was not included in the league table of child well-being because data on a number of indicators were missing.

Using national data sources from Japan and matching it carefully with the data used in the original Report Card 11, Aya Abe (IPSS) and Junko Takezawa (IPSS) managed this report to include Japan in the league table and subsequent ranking in each of five dimensions in order to assess Japan’s performance in child well-being among developed countries.

Japan’s overall ranking is 6^th among the 31 countries. ‘Education’ and ‘Behaviors and risks’ dimensions are ranking 1^st, but ‘Material well-being’ is ranking in the bottom third of countries. Japan’s poor performance in ‘Material well-being’ is puzzling given the excellent performance in ‘Education’ and ‘Behaviors and risks’ dimensions.

２　Labor Market

１．A Self-support Program and Current Status of labor market in South Korea   -Focusing on nursing worker training program

Yuki TOMOOKA（Graduate Student, Ewha Womans University）

Since the economic crisis in 1998, the expanded government’s policy on poverty in Korea has been focusing on protecting the elderly or the disabled who have no ability to support themselves, as well as helping people in the low income group who has difficult time in exiting from poverty. It is so-called Self-Support Program that aims for workfare scheme.

The Self-Support Program started in 2000 when the National Basic Livelihood Security Act was enforced. The goal of Self-Support Program is to give empowerment to low income group by offering education and work training. The program provides work opportunity for those on low incomes by connecting with government employment projects or social enterprise programs, and offers a variety of services that helps them become economically self-sufficient. However, evaluating the effectiveness of policy shows inclination toward one-sided evaluation, such as the number of job creation or exit rate from assistance. Thus, inadequacy of policy evaluation has been pointed out.

In this paper, I focus on the nursing worker’s training program that is one of the core training program in Self-Support Program. I analyze the working conditions of nursing workers with long working time and low wage in the informal sector, and make a comparison about the labor environment between workers from normal labor market and policy-supported workers. Finally, I consider the problems and results of the Self-Support Program in Korea.

２．To what extent is the occupational labor market of professionals formed?: comparing skill formation of IT engineers, scientific researcher and medical professional

Takeshi NISHIMURA（Graduate Student, Kyoto University）

Because the use of human resources out of enterprises tends to increase, it is said that occupational labor markets, especially of professionals, should be adjusted. The index that measures how occupational labor markets are formed is consisted of three parts: mobility in labor markets, horizontal wage system across enterprises and qualifying system of occupational knowledge and skill. By combining these three factors successfully, occupational labor markets of professionals will be achieved. Of these three factors, in this presentation we focus on analyzing how occupational qualifying systems are introduced and evaluate whether these systems are serving as main actors in workers’ occupational skill formation. In addition, we are going to compare the result with workers’ feeling how their skill can be used across enterprises.

３　Social Solidarity and Social Inclusion

１．Spatiotemporal Articulation as Foundations for Social Solidarity

Satoshi TAKAHASHI（Iwate Prefectural University）

Approaches that aim to create foundations for social solidarity are typically based on either the commonalities among constituent members or the benefits accruing from such solidarity. These requirements, however, are difficult to achieve because social solidarity is inherently an exercise in “cooperation premised on differences.” Some form of equilibrium is necessary to structure institutions based on subjective agreement, but social policy and the welfare state must be premised on differences in temporal and spatial positions.

We define the above idea as “spatiotemporal articulation” and present a systematic discussion of the various types of policies that further this idea. “Articulation” in this context refers not to eliminating distance, but to bridging Institutional differences.

We broadly categorize spatiotemporal articulation into microarticulations and macroarticulations. We argue that　microarticulations can be systematized from the perspective of stock-oriented policies and investments in human capital and social capital, and that macroarticulations can be systematized from the perspective of policies designed to reconstruct social contracts. We also touch on an overall vision for establishing policies that encompass both of these areas.

２．Social Inclusion for Immigrants and Refugees through Microfinance

Takashi KOSEKI（Meiji University）

This report aims to clarify the role of social inclusion for immigrants and refugees that microfinance plays in the US.The author conducted interviews with microfinance institutions (MFIs) program officers in New York and Washington, D.C.

Racial minorities have disadvantage in educational attainment and employment (NCRC, 2004; Robb et al., 2009; Rubin, 2011). However, not only race but also immigration status can affect the extent of social exclusion.  Immigrants and refugees who recently came to a new country are not likely to have sufficient literacy on legal regulation and financial system.

MFIs provide loans, savings, financial literacy education, English language and business support to help them become economically independent (FIELD, 2012). MFI sector has grown from 1990s in the US under Clinton Administration (Bhatt et al., 2002). MFIs play key roles of social inclusion for immigrants and refugees in the US.

３．South Korean Social Enterprise: Change of Meaning or Extension of the Domain?―Emergence of a New Social Enterprise Policy―

  Hong Sungwook（Graduate Student, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies）

Social Enterprise (SE) Promotion Act in South Korea is the policy that prioritized job security rather than social security and the intent of the act has been widely accepted by the Korean society. However, it has been continuously criticized because there were weaknesses of top-down approach, i.e. the act regularized certification requirements and business types. Therefore, there are demands for a debate on the concept of ‘social economy’ as a broader sense.

‘Social Economy Research Forum (SERF)’ which consists of the members of Korean National Assembly proposed ‘Special Law of Purchase Promotion and Market Support for Social Economy Enterprise’ in December 2013. This proposal paid attention on the debate for the wider meaning of social economy, while it concentrated to make preferential purchasing of public institutions sound functioning by designating ‘Social Economy Enterprise (SEE)’ that includes co-operatives and self-sufficiency businesses, etc.

This research will analyze 1) what changes the policy debate of SEE have brought for the concept of SE and 2) how the changes have defined the realm of ‘Social Economy’ through interviews with policy makers and hands-on staffs.

４　Labor Movement and History

１．NGG(the German Food, Beverages and Catering Union) and Minimum Wage Regulation

Takuya IWASA（Kobe University）

Germany has no statutory minimum wage (its introduction is planned from 2015). This is a result of contribution of collective bargaining agreement regarding minimum wage regulation. But with low-wage sector increasing in Germany since the 1990s, demand to introduce statutory minimum wage has become stronger. NGG has played leading role in promoting it. These trends show a change of function of German collective bargaining system and trade unions are also required to change.

First, this paper analyses low-wage work and industrial relations in sector of hotel, restaurant and catering and sector of meat industry. NGG is competent to both sections. Second, this paper analyses concrete development of movement which demands statutory minimum wage. Finally, it analyses tensions between such movement and collective bargaining of NGG.

２．Labor Oral History Archive Project – A focus on making film records and the availability of documents

Osamu UMEZAKI（Hosei University）

This paper discusses various ways of saving and making accessible oral history records based on our practical experience in this area. Throughout the field of historical research, many researchers have adopted oral history techniques in recent years. In some countries, principally the US and the UK, oral history centers have gathered a large volume of records that had previously been held by individuals. These records are maintained for the future and are made accessible to both researchers and the interested public upon request. The situation is very different in Japan, where the archiving of records is has not progressed and where records are still held and maintained by individual researchers. This paper outlines the issues we have encountered whilst working on the oral history archive project in collaboration with the L-library in Osaka. In particular we look at the importance for researchers of film recording of interviews and the challenges that come with this technique. Finally, we discuss the potential effects on labor researchers and labor education of maintaining oral history records in the same location as written documents. The purpose of this paper is to explore both our experience of creating the oral history archive and the research possibilities it might offer.

５　Care and Medical Treatment

１．”The　Appropriate use of drug “ in the drug policy after 1992

 Kazuko AKAGI（Graduate Student, Hitotsubashi University）

The appropriate use of drug has been recommended in the final report of the “Council of the way of drug in the 21st century”, 　which were held between October 1992 to May 1993 by Ministry of Health and Welfare.

The following can be considered as the background:

Increase of medicines which have strong　pharmacological activity and complicated usages, by the advancement of technology development.　Accompanying aging societies, people visit plural departments of hospitals, they have complication diagnosis and they take plural kind of medicines.　Furthermore, people interest increase in quality of medical care.

It is not clear what is appropriate, however.　Appropriate use of drug can mean proper amount, proper using, proper quality of medicine, the fair distribution for the people, or appropriate information.

In this paper, based on them, I analyzed by policy-historical approach about that the idea of this appropriate had given what effect on and perception in the policy since 1992.　I also want to consider the relationship between the rational use of drugs that was proposed by the WHO.　I want to clarify the issues and meanings of using appropriate medicaments for protecting the health of the people.

２．Non Profit Organization’s Strategies on the Original Home Help Services

Sumika YAMANE（Yamagata University）

The original home help services by the NPOs have drawn attention as the services which meet the needs of elderly outsides of Long-Term Care Insurance rubric, while the government has gradually reduced the amount of the home help service for each user. This paper investigates NPO’s practice about their original services and the position of the NPOs in the care service market, based on the analysis of the data from 12 in-depth interviews with care workers and a questionnaire survey of 34 NPOs. Findings are Follows: First the care workers are content with the work on the original services since they can have good relationship with the service users. Second, they regard original services as “care assistances for independent,” not as the services which is suited for woman who play it by ear, therefore they approve the policy to deliver homogeneous quality of service among the care workers and to limit the service contents. Third, they negotiate with the care managers of the local area who want to use the NPO’s original services at a low price. NPOs have changed the contents and the meaning of the original services to balance the ideal of “need-centered” and the business management.

３．The process and problems of long-term care benefits complicated

Takashi MIHARA（The Tokyo Foundation）・Atsuaki GUNJI（The Tokyo Foundation）

The Japanese Long-term Care Insurance System adopts basically itemized fee-for-service payment system. The number of items and the logic are consistently increasing the complexity in every revision of the system. The number of items was 1760 at the outset of the system but that in 2012 marked up to 20,929. The reason of this will be well explained by the conflict model proposed as the theory for understanding the system of the industrial relation. The government (MHL) who is placed under the pressure (input) from the organizations of the industry towards increasing economic reward and others towards decreasing the security cost and so forth, tries to solve the conflict by forging new rules (output).

If this trend is inevitable, it entails that the citizen will face more and more difficulty to understand the system and participate the democratic process to improve the system that is closely related to their daily life. This will bring about a blight of democracy of this country.

６　Welfare States

１．Socio-economic issues in Hong Kong: current situation of ‘positive non-interventionism’

Katsuhide ISA（Seinan Gakuin University）

This paper introduces and investigates socio-economic issues in Hong Kong, based on its recent situations. Hong Kong is well Known for its ‘free economy’ policy and it is legally guaranteed Hong Kong can keep its autonomy as a free economy city for 50 years after the handover, including the retention of socio-economic institutions inherited from the era of British rules. Because Hong Kong has sticked to the principle of ‘positive non-interventionism’ for long periods, legal institutions for worker protection and social security have not been well developed. Consequently, economic inequality in Hong Kong, for example, has been at a high level. On the other hand, Hong Kong has seen rapid population aging like other advanced nations and regions. That has caused the number of the needy elderly to increase, which has become a serious social issue and forced Hong Kong government to modify its ‘free economy’ ideology gradually. Given these trends, this paper aims to clarify the socio-economic characteristics and their future visions of Hong Kong through comparison with other nations and regions, especially mainland China.

２．Sovereign Debt Crises and Social Spending – How did European Countries Cope with the Crises?

Yoshinori ITO（Hitotsubashi University）

In European countries, budget deficits soared in 2009 due to the global recession triggered by the 2008 financial crisis. In particular, Greece, Portugal, and some countries plunged into sovereign debt crises and received bailouts by the EU and IMF. In this situation, as a result of austerity measures taken for deficit reduction, the ratio of social spending to GDP decreased in most EU countries. However, the details and extent of suppression differed across countries; further, some of the austerity measures are not temporary. It is presumed that besides the unique financial conditions in each country, the structure of the welfare system, political situation, and other factors too yielded these differences. This study explores the possibility that the crises affected the characteristics of welfare states, by comparatively analysing post-crises changes in social spending and their backgrounds in EU countries, hoping to derive implications on coping with such crises.

HOME > PUBLICATIONS > Early Journals > The Journal of Social Policy and Labor Studies (Shakai-seisaku Gakkai shi) (1999-2007)

Re-shaping the Welfare State for the 21^st Century: 　on the Recent Developments in Comparative Welfare Research

Taro MIYAMOTO

This article reviews the recent developments in comparative welfare state research, aiming to foresee how the welfare state could be reshaped in the ongoing globalization of capital markets.Firstly, the theoretical breakthrough accomplished by Gøsta Esping-Andersen’s well-known welfare regime theory is analyzed, compared to the previous phases in comparative welfare state research.What intended by his theory is, it is argued, not just to find a typology of welfare states, but to evaluate adaptabilities of the different types of welfare state in the changing international environment.Secondly, the validity of the welfare state regime theory to analyze the East Asian experiences of welfare state development is considered.Although the welfare state regime theory has been biased toward the Western experiences, still it is possible to find approximate locations of the East Asian welfare states, like Japan, in the comparative spectrum of the welfare state regime theory.Thirdly, theoretical capacity of the welfare state regime theory to prospect possible futures of welfare states is discussed.The concept of ‘decommodification’, which is principal component of the theory, should be re-defined more clearly in order to assess the ‘workfare’ reforms in the recent welfare state politics.

Historical Perspectives of ‘Mixed Economy of Welfare’ :Individual and Collectivity in the British Welfare System

Minoru TAKADA

The pluralistic approach of ‘mixed economy of welfare’ provides a new framework for examining welfare in the past as well as that in future.This paper aims to show what possibilities the angle can develop for historical research of welfare in Britain.First, it reveals the continuity between the Poor Law and the welfare state, which gave the British welfare system the long-standing and unique character as a ‘minimal, residual state-administered provision combined with self-help’.Secondly it uncovers that ‘mutualist’ and ‘associational’ culture, as embodied in trade unions, friendly societies and cooperatives, played very important roles in establishing the institutions of state welfare.Lastly, it validates the significance of the ‘moral’ and ‘ethical’ basis of the welfare state.This includes ‘civic virtue’, ‘good society’ and ‘active participation’, proclaimed by ‘Idealism’ in the late-nineteenth century.In conclusion, the `mixed economy of welfare’ approach can explain that the social foundations were crucial for establishing the welfare state, and that every welfare measure, either statutory or private, was intended to provide a safety net of securing multiple collectivities as tightly as possible in the society.

Transforming the Concepts of Workfare and Welfare state

Takehiko IKEGAMI

Workfare means the requirement of working activities in order to receive welfare benefits.The United States has introduced the “Temporary Assistance for Needy Families”(TANF) block grants based on the philosophy of workfare.However, the narrow-based workfare is criticized as punishing welfare recipients who are not responsible for their lack of jobs.And workfare has wider meanings now, including Swedish type of “active labor market policies.”In this article, I introduce a new concept of workfare.The broad-based workfare is a system of social safety net which is a combination of works and various welfare programs through public finance system.In particular, I emphasize the importance of universal programs as well as selective ones.Universal type of social services (e.g. education, nursing, health, environment, etc.) are services for cooperation in the communities.They are supplied by the local governments and the residents must contribute to the cooperation by paying taxes instead of working.The main local tax will be the personal income tax.It’s because the residents with high income have more benefits than those with low income by delegating the cooperative services to local governments and spending time on private economic activities.

Welfare State and Social Administration & Finance:Changing Welfare State and New Public Management

Takashi YAMAMOTO

Welfare state has transformed itself in a various manner in a long-term perspective, as the underlying financial conditions changed.There has been a crucial time as the role of the government and the market changes.More recently, so-called “globalization” has brought the attention where the welfare state could not function as one nation alone.

In retrospect, both the government and the market have reformed its function over the last century.As for the government, it is obvious that the management function and the service delivery function are well required by the market.On the other hand, the market seeks to create a brand-new system with the cooperation of the government.Now we enter the new era, where the government and the market co-establish a new framework and build a mutual relationship.Yet, there seems to be many concerns over this new collaboration.

The present paper, under the title of Welfare State and Social Administration & Finance, discusses the status quo of changing welfare state and emerging New Public Management (NPM).The NPM has the power to drive the welfare state transformation.It introduces to the governmental activities with the market forces and private management techniques.The paper also deals with the British community care reform by an empirical approach, focusing on creating quasi-market for the care services.Some of the defects of the quasi-market are further discussed.

The East Asian Welfare States and their New Challenges: with Focus on Japan, Korean and Taiwan

Ito PENG

The East Asian welfare states of Japan, Korea, and Taiwan are undergoing major transformations in response to economic globalization, political democratization, and changes related to demographic and gender relations.While these transformations show many similarities with other western welfare states (for example, in forms of decentralization, deregulation, and a greater mix of the public and private sector provisions), there are also some aspects that are unique to them.For example, unlike many of the western welfare states, there has been a visible expansion of the welfare state in the recent years as the state took on a greater share of the social security and social welfare responsibilities.These features suggest that while these East Asian welfare states may possess features that are common to most other post-industrial societies, they also retain characteristics that are unique to East Asia.

This paper examines the recent welfare state transformations in Japan, Korea and Taiwan.The first part of the paper looks at some of the common features:1) the family centered welfare regime; 2) the political economy based on the concept of the developmental state; and 3) similar economic, political and social/demographic pressures.The second part of the paper discusses in more detail the specific pressures that are stimulating each of these three welfare states in the direction of expansion.

Japanese Welfare State and Equality, from the Viewpoint of Comparative Gender Analysis

Mari OSAWA

This paper analyzes and characterizes the Keizai Senryaku Kaigi’s (an Advisory Council for the Prime Minister on Economic Strategy), policy recommendations relating to social safety net using the perspective of comparative gender analysis of social policies.Submitted in February 1999, the Keizai Senryaku Kaigi’s report demanded a transformation of the “Japanese-type system of society overvaluing equality of results” into “healthy and creative competitive society”, but this directive has largely been neglected by the bureaucrats. It has also been questioned whether or not and to what extent Japanese society “overvalues equality” in terms of distribution of income, assets and status. The recommendations of the Advisory Council are quite likely to be revived and respected, however, with the coming of Koizumi cabinet and the appointment of Keiou University professor Heizou Takenaka, who played a key role in Keizai Senryaku Kaigi, as Minister of Economy and Finance.My analysis shows that notwithstanding their rhetoric and many policy measures of libertarianism, the Keizai Senryaku Kaigi’s recommendations do not part from patriarchal conservatism, and would not shift the position of Japanese welfare state, from being based strongly Strongly on the male-breadwinner model.

Significance of the Welfare State in Social Welfare

Susumu TAKASHIMA

This paper discusses the significance of the welfare state from the viewpoint of the history of social welfare.The welfare state, taking UK as a model, has had universalist and comprehensive welfare systems against “Five Giants,”and added later a system of personal social services by enacting in 1970.The welfare state was brought about by the democracy enhanced in 1940s through the war against Fascist countries, which was expressed in the United Nations’ Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.At the same time, “Five Giants” and the needs for personal social services had already grown serious problems in the period between the two world wars, and the Labour government after World War 2 responded to the demands of the people as necessities.The role of the government was great and indispensable in building the welfare state.After the first oil shock, most welfare states, being faced with financial difficulty, had to cut welfare expenditure to some extent.Nevertheless, no nation has perceived that welfare states became unnecessary.Mixed economy including commercialization became popular among some politicians and researchers, and many nations had to introduce it into welfare policies due to financial deficit, creating many negative problems, especially in personal social services.

Strategy of Welfare States and Redesigning of the Social Security Systems in Japan

Takafumi UZUHASHI

This paper’s objective is to bridge the comparative analysis with the arguments how to redesign the social security systems in Japan.Two important strategic variables, universalism & selectivism and ‘workfare’ are examined to clarify the Japan’s features.

In Japan, facing the budgetary restraint, the scope of the social assistance program, a typical selective provision in nature, has been narrowed down since the year of 1981, while a long term care system for the frail old was inaugurated on the universal insurance basis in 2000.This is not so common in other states, where more targeted measures have been tried.

The other variable, ‘workfare’ has been substitutable way for most states, irrespective of the level of the economic development and the type of welfare regimes.It is a reflection of the policy orientation in the global economy.

Japan could be featured as a ‘workfare state’ until the 1980’s.Nevertheless, partly because of the high unemployment rates in these ten years named the lost decade, the workfare with the high level corporate welfare seems not to work effectively any more.It means that an expectation to safety nets, especially unemployment insurance and social assistance systems as the last resort, is growing.This is why it is urgent to change the above two systems wholly to deal with new situations and to satisfy people’s growing needs.

Towards New Developments in Welfare State Studies

Koichi HIRAOKA

This paper is based on the comments that I made as a discussant at the symposium and examines the following five issues that were raised by six papers presented at the symposium.

1) Methodological problems of welfare state studies.

2) Possibilities of the history of ‘mixed economy of welfare’.

3) New concept of ‘workfare’.

4) The problem of the underdevelopment of childcare and eldercare services in the advanced welfare states.

5) Welfare state and inter-governmental relation.

In examining these issues, reference is also made to the significance of the appearance of various proposals and strategies concerning the welfare state restructuring in Japan.

A Consideration of Welfare State’s Reform

Keino OHMOTO

My comment on the forum, “Range of Welfare State,” concerning the panelists’ proposals consists of four questions as below:

1) Should we still consider within the framework of the development of social welfare or should we depict a new socioeconomic system as an alternative to capitalism?                                                                2) Shouldn’t we need to examine the concept of ‘welfare state’ itself fundamentally? 3) What measures could we take to cope with the deterioration of local community?4) Why is the notion, ‘Safety Net,’ necessary instead of the notion of ‘social welfare as a social security system’?

The background of my comment would be epitomized into four points as below:

1) High land price is unique to Japan and causes problems in constructing a model of Welfare State.

2) The rebirth of labor movement and the development of NGO sector would help solve the problems stemmed from gender-bias in Japanese firms.

3) The concept of “out-of-private ownership” should be added to the notions of “out-of-commodification” and “out-of-family.”

4) Issues of Labor status should be examined from the viewpoint of self-fulfillment and in this sense the Holland Model and Sweden Model would be a good model for Japan in 21^st century.

A Scope of the <Welfare State>:  

the World Experience of the 20^th Century and the Transition to the 21^st

Atsushi FUKASAWA

First, this paper clarifies the signification of the common theme in the 101^st Conference of the Japanese Society of Social Policy:A Scope of the <Welfare State>.Secondly, as one of the two chairmen of this common theme session, I indicate the main points of its six communications and put up some questions about them.Lastly, through this review I attempt to elucidate a scope of the <Welfare State> which cannot be reduced to simple state welfare and consists of <mixed economy of welfare> proper to each country.Therefore, the  <Welfare State> ‘entre guillemets’ means a <Welfare-state Regime> that has been developed throughout the 20^th century, particularly after the Second World War and as a product of social policy.It is certainly necessary to emphasize the role of the State in this regime, but a variety intermediary organizations nearer to citizen can and must shoulder the responsibility of welfare in the civil society.Hence, a scope of the <Welfare State> should be considered from the viewpoint of its essential mission that is to boost the sense of solidarity and communality in the citizen so far as it will be reabsorbed by the civil society.

HOME > PUBLICATIONS > Early Journals > The Journal of Social Policy and Labor Studies (Shakai-seisaku Gakkai shi) (1999-2007)

Economic Inequality and Economic Polices

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Toshiaki TACHIBANAKI

The paper examines the relationship between economic inequality (i.e., income distribution) and economic policies.There are two methods in order to reduce the degree of income inequality in redistributed incomes (i.e., disposable incomes).The first is to reduce inequality in primary incomes (i.e., before-tax incomes), and at the same time not to use tax and social security policies. The second is to use tax and social security policies to reduce inequality in primary incomes. The paper discusses the merit and the demerit of these two methods, and shows a speculation that the second method is preferable if the society has an agreement that it is desirable to reduce inquality in redistributed incomes.

The paper also presented four strategies for the first method. (1) Intensifying the minimum wage law, (2) Reducing the difference in per-hour wages between full-timers and part-timers, (3) Reducing wage payments between larger firms and smaller firms, and (4) The introduction of various safety net systems.

About the Present Condition of the Belt of Labor Market in Japan : From a Survey on the Actual Condition of Rural Areas

Shinji OHSU

This report clarifies economic gap structure in Japan through changes in the rural labor market and considers methods to reform this gap structure from its lowest level is realized.

It is widely pointed out that Japan presently faces growing economic gap. However simply pointing out the problem does not provide any solution to the questions, “Which direction should the economic gap be steered ” or simply “Is the gap going to the right direction ”, because no one knows the admissible extent of the gap.

The best approach to the addressing gap problem is to improve its lowest level. Its improvement would steadily narrow the economic gap.

This approach will assure us that we will not make a mistake when narrowing the gap.

The first step for us to take to realize this approach is to prasp the exact elements of those who are considered to belong to the lowest group.

The rural labor market consists of the base of the labor market in Japan. At the base, both family agricultural labor and non-agricultural labor are mixed in part-time farm households.

The mixtures differ by esch part-time farm household recognizing the actual condition of the part-time farm household by class, and solve the nature of inconsistency at its concentration point. This paper shows that solution of this inconsistency is an important focal point in the relaxation of economic gap.

The Japanese Wage Differential and the Suppliers System

Hirofumi UEDA

This study intends to clarify what and how the wage differential in the Japanese automobile industry has been determined by the size of companies. In Japan, mass-production in the automobile industry started around 1960 and the original Japanese suppliers system also started at that time. One of the reasons the car makers adopted the suppliers system was that the wage differential between the car makers and their suppliers was large because the average age of the car makers was older in the late 1950s. Toyota and Nissan had stopped employment after the big labor struggle in the early 1950s.

In the 1970s the Confederation of Japan Automobile Workers’ Unions (JAW) was established. JAW is composed of the group-wide organizations such as the Federation of All Toyota Workers’ Unions and each group-wide organization aimed to unify and stabilize the level of wage rises. The wage differential among the group that includes the car maker and the suppliers has been stable since the 1970s.

Since the 1990s under difficult conditions the car makers has adopted a new cost reduction program and their suppliers also have pursued cost reduction more and more. Although the wage differential of regular workers was stable in the 1990s, some suppliers have employed more irregular workers for labor cost reduction.

Japanese Women in Class Structure

Kenji HASHIMOTO

This article aims to clarify the structure and trend of economic and social inequalities among Japanese women in the light of class theory. The economic and social situations of Japanese women are investigated in terms of their class locations, marital situations and their husbands’ class locations, using SSM survey data 1985 and 1995. Many aspects such as individual and family income, characteristics of gender roles, perception of status and consciousness about living standard among Japanese women, are well accounted in terms of class and marital status. Though inequality in the chance of class mobility is reduced, economic inequality among women is widened between 1985 and 1995, especially within new and old middle classes respectively. In sum, it can be said that contemporary Japan is a class society for women, because of various inequalities caused by class structure, either directly or indirectly via social structures such as family or business organization.

Toward a New Perspective of Women’s Social Mobility : An Analysis of Status Attainment through Earning Function

Setsuko HASHIMOTO

The thrust of this article is to suggest a new approach in analyzing gender inequality in social stratification research. Women were not regarded as agents of social mobility due to certain implicit assumptions concerning social stratification research. Though this indifference on the ‘gender issue’ was challenged, the problem was not solved because there is no consensus as to which indicator best represents both employed and non-employed women all together. In order to measure status attainment of women without reducing their heterogeneity, not only technical improvements but also conceptual changes are necessary. This article suggests that we should abandon the concept of monolithic stratification and reconstruct the concept of status. I propose to break down the concept of social status into two dimensions, occupational status and living-standard status.

By analying direct and indirect paths of women’s status attainment separately, I will attempt to show the existence of complicity between the two dimensions, which, I argue, account for gender inquality.

Employment and Unemployment of Young Workers in France

Hiromasa SUZUKI

This paper reviews unemployment issues of young workers in France. Since the 1970s, major policy issues in this country have revolved around the high unemployment rates for young workers. Several avenues of policies have been attempted: to give longer schooling to the young population (the average schooling years rose by 3 years from 1982-1983 to 1996-1997) and to provide subsidies (often with the possibility of vocational training) for the employment of young workers. Lately, employment policies tend to focus more sharply on those workers with a vulnerable profile (for instance, school dropouts in areas where industry is declining).

Cohort surveys of young workers show that they tend to have a much longer period of transition (often 5 years of more) between school and work (stable employment). This transition is, for many young people, a variegated and longer trajectory composed of periods of fix-term employment, unemployment and training before arriving to a stable open-ended employment. This trend is partly due to the difficulties and conditions of the labour market but also partly due to the desire of young people to find suitable jobs.

The Relationship between the Public Sector and the Private Sector in Postwar Japanese Social Welfare Legislation and the Inherent Restriction on the Private Sector

Tsutomu KITABA

This paper discusses the role assignment of the public sector and the private sector in the social welfare of postwar Japan. In the welfare legislations under the postwar occupation, the following principles regulated the relationship between the public sector and the private sector.

①? Operational responsibility assumed by the state and prohibition of delegation to other agencies.

②? Separation of the field and financial administration between a public sector and a private sector.

③? Prohibition of public-funds expenditure for private social work not under the control of public authority.

In the Japanese situation, private social work was commissioned to execute governmental office work, and public funds were concentrated on private social work under the control of the authorities. Such a transition changed previous principles and brought about a public-private relation peculiar to Japan. This Japanese public-private relation played a role in restraining public support regarding private social entreprises for welfare services at home.

The Social Isolation of the Elderly and Social Welfare Services in Japan

Katsuyoshi KAWAI

The main objective of this paper is to ascertain the number of elderly who live in isolation and to gain a clear understanding of their living conditions. According to my investigation of the elderly (over 65 years old) living alone in Minato-Ku, Tokyo, 30 percent are living in isolation and face various difficulties. In case of 40 percent of this age-group, the annual income is only two million yen, which is equivalent to the benefits normally provided by public assistance. Only 12. 7 percent of this group receive public assistance. The elderly who live in isolation often have inadequate access to information and are unable to make appropriate decisions regarding social welfare services. It is clear that the quantity and the seriousness of these social isolation problems cannot be bypassed when we consider the needs of the elderly and what social welfare services should be provided.

Globalization and Its Effect on the Welfare State: A Case Study of EU Member Countries

Yoshihiro SHIMODAIRA

This article analyzes the influences of globalization on welfare states in the EU which have completed the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. There are four main questions concerning this theme : First, does globalization reduce the autonomy of macro-economic policies in these countries Second, if so, will the reduction of autonomy of macro-economic policies induce “a race to the bottom”? Third, consequently, will “the race to the bottom” bring “convergence towards the Anglo-Saxon model”? Finally, will “the convergence towards the Anglo-Saxon model” result in “the end of the nation state”? Using the latest socio-economic data, the four hypotheses mentioned above are examined in this article. As a result, the author concludes that all the EU member countries have lost their autonomy over macro-economic policies since the start of the EMU, and the EMU has caused “the race to the bottom”. However, there is no evidence which shows “the convergence towards the Anglo-Saxon model” and “the end of the nation state”.

A Sketch of Taiwan’s National Pension Debate : Late Welfare State Formation in the Global Economy

Yasuhiro KAMIMURA

In recent years there has been renewed interest in the social policies of Asian countries. The aim of this paper is to investigate Taiwan’s National Pension debate after democratization. This topic is significant not only because of its theoretical importance for comparative welfare state studies, but also because of its practical relevance for indentifying the political-economic conditions for welfare state formation in the developing world. Why is it that democratization has not led automatically to the introduction of National Pension System? Certain internal factors should be considered. Differentiated social insurance schemes as a legacy of authoritarian regime, and many trivial benefit schemes as a result of electoral contests after democratization cause great difficulty in establishing a new integrated system. In understanding welfare state formation of newly democratized countries, institutional legacy must be looked into more carefully. On the other hand, there are also some external factors that require examination. Globalization fuels international economic competition, and undermines fiscal autonomy of national governments. Thus, new president Chen, whose DPP(Democratic Progressive Party) had promised to establish a “welfare state”, could not avoid declaring the postponement of the introduction of National Pension System. We should take into account that the international circumstances of Taiwan’s welfare state formation are quite different from those of advanced countries in the post-war era.

The Significance of 401(k)s in U.S. Retirement Income Policy : A Comparison with Corporate-IRAs in the Early 1980s.

Kenzo YOSHIDA

This paper studies the significance of 401(k)s in U.S. retirement income policy. For that purpose, I observe corporate-IRAs, the 401(k)-type plans which are defined as employee benefit plans with tax-deducted employees’ contributions. Conclusion consists of the following two points :

First, the 401(k)-type plans were of two political backgrounds. For one, the government tried to increase savings to boost the economy as part of the economic policy. For the other, retirement savings were encouraged as a income policy. The 401(k)-type plans were not unique ideas of a private benefit consultant, as generally said.

Second, friction between these two political backgrounds became a main issue in the history of the 401(k)s. For example 401(k)s, made by the private consultant and the IRS, imposed fewer regulations, as a retirement income policy, than corporate-IRAs made by Congress. This is why the 401(k)s could prevail over corporate-IRAs. In the Tax Reform Act of 1986, some regulations for the retirement income policy were added to the 401(k)s. After the enactment, the political issues over the 401(k)s have been raised from the conflict between the retirement income policy and the economic policy.

The Introduction of the Job Evaluation System in a Steel Plant

Hiroyuki AOKI

The objective of this paper is to examine the introduction of the job evaluation system performed at the K plant of F Iron and Steel Company in 1957, and to clarify its significances and limitations. In the revision of the wage system, job evaluations were applied to the individual calculation of group incentive pay.

Of primary importance, through job evaluations performed from 1956 to 1957 the central staff (labor division, efficiency section etc) was able to gain specific information previously only known to employees on the workshop. Secondly, the job evaluation system enabled the central staff to set all of the work of more than 1000 jobs on the basis of a unitary value standard and to attain a mutual comparison. This is a milestone in the history of development of personnel and production management.

At the same time, however, there was the limitation in the control capability of central staff, and they had to concede to the opinions of the workshop leader in the adjustment of job evaluations. Consequently, job evaluations came to be determined by the particularities of each plant, and whole-company unification ended in failure. To conclude, the job evaluation system introduced in 1957 became at the utmost only an index with which job value is expressed in a plant.

International Relocation of Production Process and Introduction of Migrant Workers in Japanese Garment Industry

Eigo MURAKAMI

This paper examines the relationship between international relocation of the production process and the introduction of migrant workers by Japanese firms, using the garment industry as an example.

In the 1990s, many Japanese manufacturers in the garment industry moved their factories to China, searching for a low wage labor force. At the same time, the firms, where the relocation of production process was difficult, utilized foreign trainees as low wage labor forces.

In the UK and the US, domestic manufacturers lost a large share of the market to overseas suppliers in the 1980s. Those firms, which managed to survive, came to rely on homeworkers and female migrant workers who were employed by ethnic minority entrepreneurs. The imigrants society which provides such a labor force does not exist in Japan. From the 1990, foreign trainees were introduced as a young and low wage labor force. Because the trainee is an “unfree laborer” who does not have the freedom to move, firms can secure a stable labor force at a lower wage. In that sense, foreign trainees were in the same position as female migrant workers in the UK and the US.

The foreign traineeship program promotes internationalization of the labor market in two ways. First, it enables smaller firms to secure a low wage labor force. Secondly, it raises a laborer’s skill level by training and helps larger firms transfer their production process outside the country. The more production abroad is expanded, and the labor force, with a certain level of skill, increases, the more the source of the labor force supply to Japan increase.

HOME > PUBLICATIONS > Early Journals > The Journal of Social Policy and Labor Studies (Shakai-seisaku Gakkai shi) (1999-2007)

The Possibilities of Social Policy in the Age of Globalization and Regional Integration

Kengo NAKAMURA

In this article the author briefly analyses economic globalization with regard to trade, production and finance.  The analysis shows that globalization is realized only in the financial market.  Economic globalization originates from the collapse of the Bretton Woods regime and the end of economic growth in the 1970s.  The process of economic globalization can be regarded as a transnational neoliberal project of dominant states, international organizations and multinational corporations aiming to overcome the crisis of the postwar global economic regime.  Under the influence of economic globalization as well as market and financial integration, the meaning of social policy in Europe has changed radically. 　Within the framework of the active supply-side policy adopted by the European Commission in the 1990s, social policy is regarded as an instrument that enhances the economic competitiveness of European nations.  What is required then is a perspective in which we can find the inherent meanings and logic of social policy, which are irreducible to those of industrial or economic policy.

Globalization and Foreign IT Workers

Keiji NATSUME

Globalization in the world economy has been driven by IT revolution during the last decade of the 20^th century.  IT technology-driven globalization in the world economy brings with it new labor issues and importantly influences immigration policy. As the developing IT revolution in the world progress in IT industries and an increase in IT employment, it takes the international mobilization of IT workers among the worldwide IT industries they work.

This paper will focus on revealing the state of foreign IT workers in the U.S. from the view of international mobilization of labor.  Especially we will focus on short-stay IT workers with H-1B visas.

Globalization and Labor Policy as well as Organized Labor in Indonesia

―With Reference to Types of Capital Transfer and Deyo’s Theory

Kosuke MIZUNO

The impact of globalization on Indonesian trade unions and government policies was studied with reference to the types of capital transfer involved.  In one type of foreign direct investment in which strict conditions were imposed upon the capital including its Indonesianization, the government controlled the trade union tightly and produced a system of exclusionary corporatism.  In another type that occurred at the beginning of overall trade liberalization when foreign direct investment was permitted without the necessity of Indonesianization of capital, military involvement in and corporate control of trade unions was legalized.  However, international organizations criticized this system and threatened trade sanctions. The Government had to respond to this criticism and made some revisions of its policy.  Financial liberalization, including short-term capital transfers, made the Soeharto regime fragile in the face of the impact of the Monetary Crisis, and with the fall of the Soeharto Administration, the government recognized the right to organize and made a law protecting trade unions.

This paper examines Deyo’s theory that the weakness of East Asian countries’ labor movements is due to the preponderance of young women in the labor force and the use of paternalistic tendencies within the bureaucracy and community as a base of the employer’s control.  According to the result of this field survey, many of today’s trade unions have not been interrupted by the local community; on the contrary, they have made use of the local community as a network base.  Moreover, young women workers dominate many active unions.  So this paper concludes that Deyo’s theory couldn’t be applied to today’s Indonesian labor movement.  Some antagonistic employers, however, have made use not only of the company’s hierarchy but also of gangsters to interrupt the union’s activities.  These attitudes have become contemporary sources of labor unrest and reflect the present weakness of law enforcement.

Challenges for Public Policy and Regulatory Reform to Cope with Globalization in the 21^st Century

Yasushi IGUCHI

With the establishment of the World Trade Organization, the trends for globalization of economies seem to have been confirmed by the majority of countries in the world.  In reality, trade disputes between economies are increasing and the discriminatory effects caused by regional integration of economies also expand. Especially in Asia, concerns for instability of the financial sector, the negative effects of trade liberalization in the AFTA, the severe competition since the admission of China to the WTO and the “brain drain” to North America and Europe are increasing.  In addition, industrialized economies face the growing risks of declining and/or aging population, which will not be easily compensated by allowing massive immigration inflows to these economies.  Japan should take the initiative in East Asia to promote regional integration and minimize the negative outcomes of globalization through integrating labor policy and social security policy as well as to renew the basic paradigm of the foreign worker policy in order to train, accept and integrate them.

The Policy for Homeless People in Germany

Yoshiko SAGA

This article describes the trends in public policy for homeless people in Germany in recent years.  The policy has mainly been implemented under the Federal Social Assistance Law and carried out by municipalities and NPOs.  Municipalities avert risks of homelessness by taking over non-payment of rent for people facing such a danger.  NPOs provide homeless people with various services based on the subsidies from the Federal Social Assistance Law.  Firstly, there are services for these who are literally homeless－those sleeping rough or in night shelters. These are called low threshold services, because people can use them anonymously without complicated applications.  Secondly, support is provided in self-contained housing－not in a shelter－for formerly homeless people.

An important point is that these policies have certainly led to a reduction in the number of homeless people.

In Japan, support is mainly provided for the elderly homeless or handicapped homeless in shelters or hospitals.

The German example of support provided for the homeless contains many attributes which should be studied by Japan.

The Problem of Homeless People and Rough Sleepers in Britain

Tohru NAKAYAMA

The homeless problem in Britain has been tackled as a big social problem since 1970’s.  The legal grounds of homeless measures in Britain have been established by the Housing Act (1977).

Since the later half of 80’s, rough sleepers, which were a one form of single homeless which was apt to be left out of priority need as prescribed by Housing Act, became a social problem. Special measures for rough sleepers have been executed.

The Labour government established the Social Exclusion Unit in 1997, and this unit considered rough sleepers as part of the tip of social exclusion.  And Labour established the Rough Sleepers Unit to solve this problem in 1999.  The target of this Unit is to reduce rough sleepers by at least two thirds by March 2002.  This unit has carried out a strategy to help rough sleepers.

The aim of this paper is to introduce the present conditions of rough sleepers which are a type of single homeless and a strategy of central government for rough sleepers.  Firstly, I examine the definition of homeless in the Housing Act and statutory homeless.  Secondly, I consider the single homeless problem and a strategy of the Rough Sleepers Unit.  Thirdly, I mention the outline of social security system, e.g. income support, in order to understand a strategy for homeless people.

Family-friendly Companies and Child Care Policy

Tsuyako NAKAMURA

In the process of creating a gender equal society in Japan, the western “family-friendly” concept has been introduced, and more Japanese companies are now trying such family-friendly programs.  This is a step away from the conventional Japanese work environment and conditions; however, the question arises whether such a family-friendly concept is totally new and has never existed in Japan.  This paper considers this question in the introductory section, describing the current definition of the “family-friendly” concept.  Then, Section Ⅱ speculates on the family-friendly concept with regard to the Japanese employment systems in the high economic growth period; it proposes the existence of a “Japanese-style family-friendly policy,” which protected the entire household at a price :  corporations demanded long working hours from male employees and either unpaid labor or peripheral work from women.  Section Ⅲ examines the family-friendly concept in the United States, where the continuous employment rate for women is higher than that of Japan.  This section demonstrates the case studies of American companies Patagonia and Johnson & Johnson, which are known as family-friendly companies.  Section IV discusses the current Japanese child care situation, exploring what corporate support programs could help to solve the existing problems of child care, and suggests certain family-friendly policies that Japan may take in the future.  This is followed by the conclusion in Section V, which proposes a new type of western family-friendliness in Japanese society.

The Substitute Personnel Problem in Childcare Leave Programs

Akira WAKISAKA

The focus of the issue of childcare leave, which forms the pillar of family-friendly policies, has shifted to actual adoption of the system in the workplace.  The two problems of finding substitutes and the specific handling procedures for such substitute personnel in the workplace, are considered in terms of the results from two hearings. Two methods are in operation:  share method and forward rotation.

The former involves the apportioning of a slightly increased volume of work among co-workers.  The latter resembles a chain-reaction, wherein existing employees are shunted forward when an individual takes childcare leave.  If a female employee takes childcare leave, responsibility for her work passes into the hands of the man or women immediately below her, that individual’s work in turn being taken on by the person below them and so on.  The former method will yield increased productivity in the short term, but the latter is considered to be superior in the long term.

The Economic Consequences of Family Friendly Practices

Yasunobu TOMITA

Recent evidence, including this study, suggests that family-friendly practices, such as parental leave and flexible work schedules, enable more women to stay in the workplace after childbirth.  This study investigates whether adopting parental leave induces firms to recruit more or fewer women.  The effects of parental leave on recruitment behavior depend on whether firms have promoted women to management or not.  The results suggest that firms with female managers recruit more women, but firms with male managers only recruit less women.  According to the human capital theory, firms that fully invest in human capital for women gain a higher return from women’s longer tenure with parental leave, and, thus, recruit more women.  Moreover, regardless of gender, employees’ feeling of attachment to their firms is increased not only by satisfaction with work worth doing, but also by satisfaction with balancing work and family.  Finally, it is found that women and men are both eager to leave the workplace where women have often suffered from sexual harassment.  Adopting family friendly practices and preventing sexual harassment are important policies for improving women’s economic status.  Those policies improve men’s well-being in the workplace as well.